Class 12 Political Science Chapter 15 — Recent Trends and Development in Indian Politics
Welcome to HSLC Guru. This article provides complete ASSEB Class 12 Political Science Chapter 15 question answers in English medium on “Recent Trends and Development in Indian Politics.” It covers the era of coalition governments, Mandal politics, the rise of the BJP, economic liberalisation, the Panchayati Raj revolution, and movements for transparency and rights — all aligned with the ASSEB Class 12 syllabus and HSLC/Higher Secondary exam preparation needs.
About the Chapter
This chapter examines the major political developments in India after 1989 — the year that marked the end of one-party dominance and the beginning of the era of coalition governments. It explores the Mandal Commission and OBC mobilisation, the Ayodhya dispute and the demolition of the Babri Masjid, the rise of the BJP as the principal opposition and ruling party, the economic reforms of 1991, the strengthening of regional parties, and the consolidation of identity politics. It also discusses landmark institutional reforms — the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments empowering local self-government, the Right to Information Act 2005, and the Right to Service legislations — which deepened Indian democracy.
Summary
The post-1989 phase represents a turning point in Indian politics. The 1989 general election ended the Congress dominance and ushered in an era of coalition governments. The National Front government led by V.P. Singh decided to implement the Mandal Commission’s recommendation reserving 27% of central government jobs for Other Backward Classes (OBCs), igniting widespread debates and protests. Around the same time, the Ayodhya movement led by the BJP and its allies culminated in the demolition of the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992, raising serious questions about communalism and secularism in India.
In 1991, P.V. Narasimha Rao became Prime Minister and his government, in response to a severe balance-of-payments crisis, launched the New Economic Policy of liberalisation, privatisation, and globalisation (LPG). This fundamentally reshaped India’s economy. From 1996 onwards, no single party could secure a parliamentary majority, leading to the NDA (1998–2004, 2014 onwards) and UPA (2004–2014) eras of multi-party coalition governance. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) institutionalised Panchayati Raj and urban local bodies with reservations for SC, ST and women. Dalit and Adivasi movements asserted their political identity, OBC politics became a defining feature of north Indian states, and the Right to Information Act 2005 along with various Right to Service Acts strengthened citizen empowerment and government accountability.
সাৰাংশ (Summary in Assamese)
১৯৮৯ চনৰ পাছৰ সময়ছোৱা ভাৰতীয় ৰাজনীতিৰ এক গুৰুত্বপূৰ্ণ মোৰ। এই বছৰৰ সাধাৰণ নিৰ্বাচনে কংগ্ৰেছৰ একাধিপত্যৰ অন্ত পেলায় আৰু কোৱালিচন চৰকাৰৰ যুগৰ আৰম্ভণি কৰে। ভি. পি. সিঙৰ নেতৃত্বৰ ৰাষ্ট্ৰীয় মৰ্চা চৰকাৰে মণ্ডল আয়োগৰ পৰামৰ্শ অনুসৰি অন্যান্য পিছপৰা শ্ৰেণী (OBC)ৰ বাবে কেন্দ্ৰীয় চাকৰিত ২৭% সংৰক্ষণ ঘোষণা কৰে, যাৰ ফলত দেশজুৰি ব্যাপক প্ৰতিক্ৰিয়া হয়। এই সময়তে অযোধ্যা আন্দোলনে ১৯৯২ চনৰ ৬ ডিচেম্বৰত বাবৰি মছজিদৰ ধ্বংসৰ পৰিণতি লভে, যিয়ে সাম্প্ৰদায়িকতা আৰু ধৰ্মনিৰপেক্ষতাৰ প্ৰশ্ন তীব্ৰ কৰি তোলে।
১৯৯১ চনত পি. ভি. নৰসিংহ ৰাওৰ চৰকাৰে অৰ্থনৈতিক সংস্কাৰ আৰম্ভ কৰে — উদাৰীকৰণ, ব্যক্তিগতকৰণ আৰু বিশ্বায়নৰ (LPG) নীতি গ্ৰহণ কৰি ভাৰতীয় অৰ্থনীতিক বিশ্ব বজাৰৰ সৈতে সংযুক্ত কৰে। ১৯৯৬ চনৰ পৰা NDA আৰু UPAৰ নেতৃত্বত কোৱালিচন চৰকাৰৰ ধাৰাবাহিকতা চলি থাকে। ৭৩ আৰু ৭৪ সংখ্যক সাংবিধানিক সংশোধনীয়ে (১৯৯২) পঞ্চায়তীৰাজ আৰু নগৰ স্থানীয় শাসন ব্যৱস্থাক সাংবিধানিক স্বীকৃতি দিয়ে। দলিত আৰু আদিবাসী আন্দোলন, OBC ৰাজনীতি, তথ্যৰ অধিকাৰ আইন ২০০৫ আৰু সেৱাৰ অধিকাৰ আইনসমূহে ভাৰতীয় গণতন্ত্ৰক অধিক গভীৰ আৰু অংশীদাৰীমূলক কৰি তোলে।
NCERT Textbook Questions and Answers
1. Which of the following statements about the Mandal Commission are correct?
(a) It was appointed in 1978.
(b) It recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs.
(c) Its recommendations were accepted by the V.P. Singh government in 1990.
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above. The Mandal Commission, headed by B.P. Mandal, was appointed in 1978 by the Janata Party government, submitted its report in 1980, and its recommendation of 27% reservation for OBCs in central government jobs was implemented by the V.P. Singh government in 1990.
2. What is meant by “coalition government”?
Answer: A coalition government is a government formed by two or more political parties when no single party is able to secure an absolute majority in the legislature. Member parties share ministerial portfolios and agree on a Common Minimum Programme. Since 1989, India has primarily seen coalition governments at the centre, such as the National Front, NDA and UPA.
3. Discuss the rise of the BJP as a major political party after 1989.
Answer: The Bharatiya Janata Party, founded in 1980, emerged as a major political force after 1989 by combining the Hindutva ideology with the Ayodhya movement led by the Vishva Hindu Parishad and the RSS. From just 2 seats in 1984, the BJP rose to 85 seats in 1989, 120 in 1991, and 161 in 1996. It led the NDA government from 1998 to 2004 under Atal Bihari Vajpayee and again from 2014 onwards under Narendra Modi, reflecting a broad expansion of its social base, organisational strength and electoral appeal.
4. What were the main features of the New Economic Policy of 1991?
Answer: The New Economic Policy of 1991, introduced by the Narasimha Rao government with Manmohan Singh as Finance Minister, had three main features: (i) Liberalisation — reducing government controls and licences on industries; (ii) Privatisation — allowing private and foreign capital in sectors earlier reserved for the public sector; (iii) Globalisation — opening the Indian economy to foreign trade, investment and competition. It marked a fundamental shift away from the earlier mixed-economy, state-led model.
5. Explain the significance of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.
Answer: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 (Panchayati Raj) and the 74th Amendment Act, 1992 (Municipalities) gave constitutional status to rural and urban local self-governments. They mandated regular elections every five years, established a three-tier system in rural areas, reserved one-third of seats for women, and reserved seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population. They also created State Election Commissions and State Finance Commissions, transforming local democracy into a third tier of governance.
6. What is communalism? How did the Babri Masjid demolition affect Indian politics?
Answer: Communalism is a political ideology that views religious community as the fundamental unit of social and political identity, often promoting hostility towards other religious groups. The demolition of the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992 led to widespread communal violence across India, polarised Indian politics along religious lines, raised serious challenges for Indian secularism, and consolidated Hindutva politics while pressuring secular parties to redefine their strategies.
7. What do you understand by Right to Information?
Answer: The Right to Information Act 2005 empowers every citizen to request information from any public authority, which is required to reply within thirty days. It promotes transparency, accountability, and citizen participation in governance. It originated from the grassroots struggle of the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan and is now an important tool for fighting corruption and ensuring good governance.
8. Discuss the importance of regional parties in Indian politics.
Answer: Regional parties have become indispensable in Indian politics since 1989. Parties such as DMK, AIADMK, TDP, BJD, TMC, SP, BSP, AGP, JDU, RJD and Shiv Sena have not only dominated state politics but also become key partners in central coalitions. They articulate regional aspirations, represent linguistic and cultural identities, voice the demands of marginalised communities, and have made Indian federalism more genuinely cooperative and competitive.
9. What were the consequences of the Mandal Commission implementation?
Answer: The implementation of the Mandal Commission report in 1990 had far-reaching consequences: it triggered nationwide protests, particularly among upper-caste students; it led to the rise of OBC-based political parties such as the SP, RJD, JD(U); it gave OBCs a powerful political voice especially in north Indian states; it intensified caste-based mobilisation; and it permanently transformed the social composition of India’s parliamentary and bureaucratic leadership.
10. Briefly describe the Dalit and Adivasi movements after 1989.
Answer: Dalit movements led by parties like the BSP under Kanshi Ram and Mayawati asserted political power, especially in Uttar Pradesh, mobilising Dalits around dignity, social justice and constitutional rights. Adivasi movements demanded recognition of their distinct identity, protection of land and forest rights, and led to the creation of the states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh in 2000. Legislations such as the Forest Rights Act 2006 and PESA 1996 emerged from these struggles.
Short Answer Questions
1. When did the era of coalition government begin in India?
Answer: The era of coalition government at the central level began with the 1989 general election when no party secured a majority and the National Front government was formed under V.P. Singh.
2. Who chaired the Mandal Commission?
Answer: The Mandal Commission, formally the Second Backward Classes Commission, was chaired by B.P. Mandal.
3. What is meant by LPG reforms?
Answer: LPG stands for Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation — the three pillars of the New Economic Policy launched in 1991.
4. What is NDA and UPA?
Answer: NDA (National Democratic Alliance) is a coalition led by the BJP, formed in 1998. UPA (United Progressive Alliance) is a coalition led by the Congress, formed in 2004.
5. When were the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments passed?
Answer: Both amendments were passed by Parliament in 1992 and came into force in 1993.
6. When was the Babri Masjid demolished?
Answer: The Babri Masjid was demolished on 6 December 1992 in Ayodhya.
7. What is Right to Service?
Answer: Right to Service refers to state legislations that guarantee citizens the timely delivery of specified public services and provide for penalties on officials who fail to deliver them. Madhya Pradesh enacted the first such Act in 2010.
8. Who was the first non-Congress Prime Minister to complete a full five-year term?
Answer: Atal Bihari Vajpayee, who led the NDA government from 1999 to 2004, was the first non-Congress Prime Minister to complete a full five-year term.
9. When was the RTI Act passed?
Answer: The Right to Information Act was passed by Parliament in 2005.
10. Name two major regional parties of Assam.
Answer: The Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) and the All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF) are two major regional parties of Assam.
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the major political developments in India after 1989.
Answer: The year 1989 is a watershed in Indian politics. Several major developments followed: (i) End of Congress dominance — Congress lost its long-standing majority and India entered a multi-party coalition era. (ii) Mandal politics — V.P. Singh’s decision to implement 27% OBC reservation transformed caste politics and gave rise to OBC-led parties. (iii) Mandir politics — the Ayodhya movement and the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 brought communal politics to the centre. (iv) Economic reforms — the 1991 LPG policy linked the Indian economy to global markets. (v) Rise of regional parties — federal coalitions became the norm. (vi) Strengthening local democracy — the 73rd and 74th Amendments empowered grassroots institutions. (vii) Rights-based governance — the RTI 2005, MGNREGA 2005, Forest Rights Act 2006 and Right to Service Acts deepened democratic citizenship.
2. Critically examine the impact of the Mandal Commission on Indian politics.
Answer: The Mandal Commission’s implementation in 1990 reshaped Indian politics in profound ways. Positively, it gave political voice and representation to OBCs who form a large share of India’s population, widened the social base of democracy, contributed to the emergence of a strong OBC leadership, and promoted social justice. Critically, it intensified caste-based mobilisation, sparked violent agrarian and student protests, deepened the upper-caste vs. backward-caste divide in north India, and was sometimes used as a tool of vote-bank politics rather than empowerment. Despite these tensions, Mandal permanently transformed the political map of the country.
3. Examine the rise and growth of coalition politics in India.
Answer: Coalition politics in India became a structural feature after 1989. Causes include the decline of the Congress, the rise of regional parties, social fragmentation along caste and religious lines, and growing federal assertion. Phases include: (i) National Front (1989–91) under V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar; (ii) Congress minority government (1991–96) under Narasimha Rao; (iii) United Front (1996–98); (iv) NDA (1998–2004) under Vajpayee; (v) UPA (2004–14) under Manmohan Singh; (vi) NDA (2014 onwards) under Narendra Modi. Coalition governments have promoted federal accommodation and policy compromise but at times suffered from instability and populism.
4. Discuss the impact of economic reforms of 1991 on Indian politics and society.
Answer: The 1991 reforms produced wide-ranging effects. Economically, India shifted from a controlled to a market-oriented economy, attracted foreign investment, accelerated GDP growth, and emerged as a major service-sector economy. Politically, a broad consensus across parties developed in favour of liberalisation; states began competing to attract investment; new corporate-political networks emerged; and economic management became central to electoral politics. Socially, a large urban middle class expanded, but the reforms also widened inequality between regions and classes, generated debates around displacement, jobless growth, and farmers’ distress, and led to new movements demanding inclusive growth.
5. Discuss the importance of Panchayati Raj in deepening Indian democracy.
Answer: The 73rd Amendment institutionalised a three-tier Panchayati Raj system at village, block and district levels with constitutional status. Its significance lies in: (i) creating over 30 lakh elected representatives at the local level, the largest local democracy in the world; (ii) reservation of one-third (now half in many states) of seats for women, transforming gender representation; (iii) reservations for SCs and STs ensuring social inclusion; (iv) decentralisation of planning and development functions through the Eleventh Schedule; (v) creation of State Election Commissions and Finance Commissions. It has democratised power, although limitations persist regarding fund flow, functional autonomy and elite capture.
6. Explain how the RTI Act 2005 has strengthened Indian democracy.
Answer: The Right to Information Act 2005 has been a transformative legislation. It has empowered ordinary citizens to demand information from any public authority, exposed corruption in welfare schemes, ensured accountability of bureaucrats and elected representatives, supported investigative journalism and civil society activism, and created Information Commissions at the central and state levels. Born out of the people’s movement led by MKSS in Rajasthan, RTI has become a powerful instrument of participatory governance and is widely regarded as one of the most progressive transparency laws in the world.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The era of coalition governments at the centre began in:
(a) 1977
(b) 1984
(c) 1989
(d) 1991
Answer: (c) 1989
2. The Mandal Commission was headed by:
(a) Kaka Kalelkar
(b) B.P. Mandal
(c) V.P. Singh
(d) Morarji Desai
Answer: (b) B.P. Mandal
3. The Mandal Commission recommended what percentage of reservation for OBCs?
(a) 15%
(b) 22.5%
(c) 27%
(d) 33%
Answer: (c) 27%
4. The Babri Masjid was demolished on:
(a) 6 December 1991
(b) 6 December 1992
(c) 6 December 1993
(d) 6 December 1990
Answer: (b) 6 December 1992
5. The New Economic Policy was introduced in:
(a) 1990
(b) 1991
(c) 1992
(d) 1995
Answer: (b) 1991
6. Who was the Finance Minister when the LPG reforms were introduced?
(a) P. Chidambaram
(b) Yashwant Sinha
(c) Manmohan Singh
(d) Pranab Mukherjee
Answer: (c) Manmohan Singh
7. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments deal with:
(a) Right to Education
(b) Local self-government
(c) Anti-defection law
(d) GST
Answer: (b) Local self-government
8. The Right to Information Act was passed in:
(a) 2002
(b) 2003
(c) 2005
(d) 2007
Answer: (c) 2005
9. NDA stands for:
(a) National Democratic Authority
(b) National Democratic Alliance
(c) New Democratic Alliance
(d) National Defence Alliance
Answer: (b) National Democratic Alliance
10. UPA was formed in:
(a) 1998
(b) 2002
(c) 2004
(d) 2009
Answer: (c) 2004
11. Who was Prime Minister when the Mandal Commission report was implemented?
(a) Rajiv Gandhi
(b) V.P. Singh
(c) Chandra Shekhar
(d) Narasimha Rao
Answer: (b) V.P. Singh
12. The first non-Congress PM to complete a full five-year term was:
(a) Morarji Desai
(b) V.P. Singh
(c) Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(d) H.D. Deve Gowda
Answer: (c) Atal Bihari Vajpayee
13. The Right to Information movement originated from a campaign led by:
(a) Anna Hazare
(b) MKSS, Rajasthan
(c) Aruna Roy and Nikhil Dey only at central level
(d) Narmada Bachao Andolan
Answer: (b) MKSS, Rajasthan
14. Which state passed the first Right to Service Act?
(a) Bihar
(b) Madhya Pradesh
(c) Delhi
(d) Karnataka
Answer: (b) Madhya Pradesh
15. Which states were created in 2000?
(a) Telangana, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand
(b) Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand
(c) Goa, Chhattisgarh, Manipur
(d) Sikkim, Mizoram, Nagaland
Answer: (b) Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand
16. The Bahujan Samaj Party was founded by:
(a) Mayawati
(b) Kanshi Ram
(c) Jagjivan Ram
(d) Ram Vilas Paswan
Answer: (b) Kanshi Ram
17. P.V. Narasimha Rao became Prime Minister in:
(a) 1989
(b) 1991
(c) 1996
(d) 1998
Answer: (b) 1991
18. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments came into effect in:
(a) 1991
(b) 1992
(c) 1993
(d) 1994
Answer: (c) 1993
19. Reservation for women in Panchayati Raj institutions is:
(a) 27%
(b) 33%
(c) 50% in many states
(d) Both (b) and (c)
Answer: (d) Both (b) and (c)
20. The Forest Rights Act was passed in:
(a) 2005
(b) 2006
(c) 2008
(d) 2010
Answer: (b) 2006
21. MGNREGA was enacted in:
(a) 2004
(b) 2005
(c) 2007
(d) 2009
Answer: (b) 2005
22. Which party led the United Front government of 1996–98?
(a) BJP
(b) Congress
(c) Janata Dal
(d) CPI(M)
Answer: (c) Janata Dal
23. The Asom Gana Parishad was founded in:
(a) 1980
(b) 1985
(c) 1989
(d) 1991
Answer: (b) 1985
24. The Right to Education Act was passed in:
(a) 2002
(b) 2005
(c) 2009
(d) 2013
Answer: (c) 2009
25. Which of the following is NOT a feature of LPG reforms?
(a) Liberalisation
(b) Privatisation
(c) Globalisation
(d) Nationalisation
Answer: (d) Nationalisation
Post-1989 Prime Ministers of India
| Prime Minister | Tenure | Party / Coalition |
|---|---|---|
| V.P. Singh | 1989–1990 | Janata Dal / National Front |
| Chandra Shekhar | 1990–1991 | Samajwadi Janata Party (with Congress support) |
| P.V. Narasimha Rao | 1991–1996 | Indian National Congress |
| Atal Bihari Vajpayee | May 1996 (13 days) | BJP |
| H.D. Deve Gowda | 1996–1997 | Janata Dal / United Front |
| I.K. Gujral | 1997–1998 | Janata Dal / United Front |
| Atal Bihari Vajpayee | 1998–2004 | BJP / NDA |
| Manmohan Singh | 2004–2014 | Congress / UPA |
| Narendra Modi | 2014 – present | BJP / NDA |
Key Terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Coalition Government | Government formed by alliance of two or more parties when no single party has a majority. |
| Mandal Commission | Second Backward Classes Commission (1978) headed by B.P. Mandal that recommended 27% reservation for OBCs. |
| OBC | Other Backward Classes — socially and educationally backward groups identified for reservation benefits. |
| Communalism | Ideology that places one’s religious community above others and turns religion into political identity. |
| Secularism | State principle of equal treatment of all religions and separation of religion from state affairs. |
| LPG | Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation — pillars of 1991 economic reforms. |
| NDA | National Democratic Alliance — BJP-led coalition formed in 1998. |
| UPA | United Progressive Alliance — Congress-led coalition formed in 2004. |
| Panchayati Raj | Three-tier rural local self-government given constitutional status by the 73rd Amendment, 1992. |
| RTI | Right to Information Act, 2005 — enables citizens to seek information from public authorities. |
| Right to Service | State laws guaranteeing time-bound delivery of public services with penalties for delay. |
| Hindutva | Political ideology emphasising Hindu cultural identity as the basis of Indian nationhood. |
| Common Minimum Programme | Negotiated policy document agreed upon by coalition partners for governance. |
| Identity Politics | Politics organised around shared social identity such as caste, religion, language or region. |