Class 12 Political Science Chapter 10 — Politics of Planned Development
Welcome to HSLC Guru. This article presents complete English-medium question and answer notes for ASSEB Class 12 Political Science Part B, Chapter 10 — Politics of Planned Development. The chapter traces how independent India chose planning as the strategy for economic development, examines the rationale behind the Five Year Plans, the Mahalanobis model, the Green Revolution, land reforms, cooperatives, and bank nationalisation, and explores the political debates that shaped these choices.
About the Chapter
After Independence in 1947, India faced the twin challenges of poverty and underdevelopment. The leaders of the freedom movement believed that political independence had to be matched by economic and social transformation. Inspired by the experience of the Soviet Union and shaped by the consensus built during the freedom struggle, India adopted planned development as its core strategy. The Planning Commission was set up in 1950, the First Five Year Plan was launched in 1951, and a series of plans laid the foundation for industrialisation, agriculture modernisation and the public sector. This chapter studies the politics behind those choices and their long-term consequences.
Summary
Concept of Development: Development meant different things to different sections — to some it meant becoming more “modern” and Western, to others it meant economic growth with social justice. Independent India’s leaders broadly agreed that the goal was to lift millions out of poverty and to make India a self-reliant industrialised nation while preserving democracy.
Planning Commission (1950): The Planning Commission was set up by an executive resolution of the Government of India in March 1950. The Prime Minister was its ex-officio Chairman. Its task was to assess the country’s resources and frame Five Year Plans for their effective and balanced use.
Five Year Plans: Borrowed from the Soviet model, the Five Year Plans set targets for the economy over five-year periods. The First Plan focused on agriculture and dams; subsequent plans shifted emphasis to heavy industry, agricultural self-sufficiency, employment and poverty alleviation.
First Five Year Plan (1951–56): Drafted under economist K. N. Raj, this plan gave top priority to agriculture, irrigation and large multi-purpose river valley projects such as the Bhakra Nangal and Hirakud dams. It aimed to raise national income and check inflation after the disruptions of Partition.
Second Five Year Plan (1956–61) — Mahalanobis Model: Drafted by the statistician P. C. Mahalanobis, the Second Plan stressed rapid industrialisation with heavy industries and capital goods at its core. Public sector units in steel (Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur), heavy machinery, telecommunications and electricity were established. Tariff protection and import substitution shielded Indian industries.
Socialist Ideology: The 1955 Avadi Session of the Congress declared that the goal was a “socialistic pattern of society”. This meant a mixed economy in which the State and the public sector held the commanding heights, while a regulated private sector also operated.
Land Reforms — Kerala: Land reform was treated as the foundation of rural transformation. Kerala, under E. M. S. Namboodiripad’s Communist government (elected 1957), pioneered radical land reforms abolishing tenancy and redistributing land to actual cultivators, becoming a model for other states.
Green Revolution (mid-1960s): Faced with severe food shortages and dependence on PL-480 wheat from the United States, the government promoted the Green Revolution — high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, assured irrigation and minimum support prices, especially in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains, but inequalities between regions and classes grew.
Cooperative Agriculture: The Nagpur Resolution of the Congress (1959) supported joint cooperative farming. It created strong opposition from landed interests, especially within the Swatantra Party formed in 1959, and the proposal was largely shelved. However, milk cooperatives (Operation Flood, AMUL) and credit cooperatives flourished.
Nationalisation — Bank Nationalisation 1969: Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 major private commercial banks in July 1969. The aim was to direct credit to agriculture, small industry and weaker sections. Coal mines and the general insurance industry were also nationalised in subsequent years. Critics called it political populism; supporters defended it as social control over finance.
Legacy: Planned development built India’s industrial base, public sector, scientific institutions and food security. Yet, slow growth (the so-called “Hindu rate of growth” of about 3.5% till 1980), regional imbalances and persistent poverty led to debates that culminated in the 1991 economic reforms.
সাৰাংশ (Summary in Assamese)
স্বাধীনতাৰ পিছত ভাৰতে দাৰিদ্ৰ্য আৰু পিছপৰাৰ সমস্যাৰ সন্মুখীন হোৱাৰ পিছত পৰিকল্পিত উন্নয়নৰ পথ গ্ৰহণ কৰিছিল। ১৯৫০ চনত পৰিকল্পনা আয়োগ গঠন কৰা হয় আৰু ১৯৫১ চনত প্ৰথম পঞ্চবাৰ্ষিক পৰিকল্পনা আৰম্ভ হয় যিয়ে কৃষি আৰু বাঁধ নিৰ্মাণক প্ৰাধান্য দিছিল। ১৯৫৬-৬১ চনৰ দ্বিতীয় পৰিকল্পনাত পি. চি. মহালনবিছৰ আদৰ্শ অনুসৰি ভাৰী উদ্যোগ আৰু ৰাজহুৱা খণ্ডৰ ওপৰত গুৰুত্ব দিয়া হয়। ১৯৫৫ চনৰ আৱড়ী অধিৱেশনত কংগ্ৰেছে “সমাজবাদী আদৰ্শৰ সমাজ” গঢ়াৰ সংকল্প লয়। কেৰালাত নাম্বুদিৰিপাদৰ চৰকাৰে ভূমি সংস্কাৰৰ পথ দেখুৱায়। ষাঠিৰ দশকৰ মাজভাগত হোৱা সেউজ বিপ্লৱে ভাৰতক খাদ্যশস্যত স্বনিৰ্ভৰ কৰি তোলে। ১৯৫৯ চনৰ নাগপুৰ প্ৰস্তাৱে সমবায় কৃষিৰ পক্ষে মত দিলেও ই বিৰোধৰ সন্মুখীন হয়। ১৯৬৯ চনত ইন্দিৰা গান্ধীৰ চৰকাৰে ১৪টা ব্যক্তিগত বেংক ৰাষ্ট্ৰীয়কৰণ কৰে। পৰিকল্পিত উন্নয়নে ভাৰতৰ ঔদ্যোগিক ভিত্তি আৰু খাদ্য নিৰাপত্তা গঢ়িলেও অসমতা আৰু লেহেমীয়া বৃদ্ধিৰ কাৰণে ১৯৯১ চনৰ অৰ্থনৈতিক সংস্কাৰৰ পথ মুকলি কৰে।
NCERT Textbook Questions and Answers
1. Which of the following statements about the Bombay Plan is incorrect?
(a) It was a blueprint for India’s economic future.
(b) It supported state-ownership of industry.
(c) It was made by some leading industrialists.
(d) It supported strongly the idea of planning.
Answer: (b) It supported state-ownership of industry. (The Bombay Plan, 1944, accepted a major role for the State but did not advocate full state-ownership.)
2. Match the following:
| List A | List B |
| (a) Charan Singh | (i) Industrialisation |
| (b) P. C. Mahalanobis | (ii) Zoning |
| (c) Bihar famine | (iii) Farmers |
| (d) Verghese Kurien | (iv) Milk Cooperatives |
Answer: (a)–(iii) Farmers; (b)–(i) Industrialisation; (c)–(ii) Zoning; (d)–(iv) Milk Cooperatives.
3. Whom would you identify with the following ideas/ideals?
(a) Strategy of industrialisation modelled on Soviet experience
(b) Stronger emphasis on the role of private sector
(c) Agriculture as the area of fundamental priority
(d) Strong objection to inequalities, regional and personal
Answer: (a) P. C. Mahalanobis; (b) The Bombay Plan industrialists / Swatantra Party; (c) Charan Singh; (d) Jawaharlal Nehru and the Left.
4. What were the major differences in the approach towards development at the time of independence? Has the debate been resolved?
Answer: At Independence two contrasting approaches existed. The capitalist model stressed private enterprise, market signals and minimal state intervention. The socialist model stressed public ownership, central planning and equality. India chose a mixed economy — both public and private sectors, with the State at the commanding heights. The debate has not been fully resolved. Even after the 1991 reforms, India continues to balance markets with welfare schemes such as MGNREGA, food security and subsidies, while debating the right size of the State.
5. What was the major thrust of the First Five Year Plan? In which ways did the Second Plan differ from the first one?
Answer: The First Five Year Plan (1951–56) focused on agriculture, irrigation and large dams, raising savings and reducing inflation. The Second Plan (1956–61), drafted by Mahalanobis, focused on rapid industrialisation through heavy industries in the public sector — steel plants, machine-building, chemicals — using import substitution and tariffs. While the First Plan was cautious and rural-centred, the Second was bold, urban-industrial and Soviet-inspired.
6. What was the Green Revolution? Mention two positive and two negative consequences.
Answer: The Green Revolution refers to the use of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and assured irrigation, supported by minimum support prices, that dramatically raised foodgrain production from the late 1960s.
Positive: (i) India became self-sufficient in foodgrains; (ii) a class of prosperous middle peasants emerged with political voice. Negative: (i) regional disparities widened — Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. gained while east and south lagged; (ii) inequality grew between large and small farmers, and over-use of chemicals damaged soil and groundwater.
7. The idea of planning in India was drawn from different sources. Discuss.
Answer: Indian planning had multiple roots. (i) The Soviet experience of Five Year Plans inspired the structure. (ii) The National Planning Committee (1938) under Nehru, set up by the Congress, drew on socialist thought. (iii) The Bombay Plan (1944) by industrialists supported State-led planning with a strong private sector. (iv) Gandhian ideas of village self-sufficiency and decentralisation. (v) Western welfare-state and Keynesian economics. India synthesised these into a mixed economy.
8. The planned development model was criticised on several grounds. Explain.
Answer: Critics argued that (i) excessive central planning created an over-regulated “Licence-Permit-Quota Raj” that stifled enterprise; (ii) growth remained slow at 3.5% till 1980; (iii) the public sector became inefficient and loss-making; (iv) agriculture lagged behind industry; (v) rural unemployment and inequality persisted; (vi) the “trickle-down” assumption failed to lift the poorest; (vii) regional imbalances grew.
9. Read the following passage and answer the questions below: “We have to consider these vast political and economic changes which are taking place all over the world… Without political freedom we cannot have any kind of economic development or social development. The whole problem of bringing economic development to a country is intimately connected with planning.” — Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) Why does Nehru think that economic development is connected with planning?
Answer: Because resources were scarce and had to be used in a coordinated way to lift millions out of poverty. The market alone, in Nehru’s view, would not deliver equity or self-reliance.
(b) What is the link between political freedom and development?
Answer: Without political freedom a nation cannot decide its own priorities. Independence allowed India to choose its own development path through democratic planning.
Short Answer Questions
1. What is meant by “planned development”?
Answer: A strategy in which the State sets economic goals and allocates resources through periodic plans rather than leaving development to market forces alone.
2. When was the Planning Commission set up and by whom was it chaired?
Answer: The Planning Commission was set up in March 1950 by an executive resolution of the Government of India. The Prime Minister was its ex-officio Chairman.
3. What was the Bombay Plan?
Answer: A 1944 document prepared by eight leading industrialists (including J. R. D. Tata and G. D. Birla) that proposed a State-guided plan for India’s industrialisation while keeping a major role for the private sector.
4. What was the Mahalanobis Model?
Answer: The strategy designed by P. C. Mahalanobis for the Second Five Year Plan that gave priority to heavy industries and capital goods in the public sector to make India industrially self-reliant.
5. What was the Avadi Resolution?
Answer: Adopted at the 1955 Avadi Session of the Congress, it declared that India would aim for a “socialistic pattern of society”.
6. What were the main features of the First Five Year Plan?
Answer: Priority to agriculture, irrigation, dams (Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley), price stability and modest industrial growth.
7. Name three public sector steel plants set up under the Second Plan.
Answer: Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela (Odisha) and Durgapur (West Bengal).
8. What is meant by the “commanding heights” of the economy?
Answer: The key sectors — heavy industry, banking, mining, energy, transport — that the State controlled directly through public sector enterprises in a mixed economy.
9. Who led the Communist government in Kerala that introduced land reforms?
Answer: E. M. S. Namboodiripad, who became Chief Minister in 1957.
10. What was the Nagpur Resolution of 1959?
Answer: A Congress resolution that called for joint cooperative farming and ceiling on land holdings; it provoked strong opposition from landlords and led to the founding of the Swatantra Party.
11. When and how many banks were nationalised by Indira Gandhi?
Answer: In July 1969, fourteen major private commercial banks were nationalised.
12. What is the “Hindu rate of growth”?
Answer: A term coined by economist Raj Krishna for India’s slow average annual growth rate of about 3.5% during the first three decades of planning.
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the politics behind the adoption of planned development in India.
Answer: The choice of planned development was shaped by the freedom struggle, the global context of the 1940s and 1950s, and India’s own social conditions. (i) Anti-colonial consensus — leaders across ideological lines agreed that political freedom must be backed by economic transformation. The Congress’s National Planning Committee (1938) and the Bombay Plan (1944) of industrialists both endorsed planning. (ii) Soviet inspiration — the apparent success of Soviet Five Year Plans in industrialising a backward agrarian economy impressed Indian leaders. (iii) Welfare state model — Western experience after the Great Depression and World War II showed that the State had to intervene to ensure full employment and basic services. (iv) Domestic compulsion — mass poverty, illiteracy, low savings, weak private capital and the need for self-reliance demanded coordinated public action. The Planning Commission (1950) and Five Year Plans became the political instruments of this consensus, although tensions between Nehru’s socialism, Patel’s pragmatism, Gandhian decentralisation and the Right’s pro-market view continued.
2. Explain the Mahalanobis Model and the role of the Second Five Year Plan in shaping India’s industrial base.
Answer: P. C. Mahalanobis, founder of the Indian Statistical Institute, drafted the Second Five Year Plan (1956–61). He argued that to break out of the “low-level equilibrium trap”, India must invest heavily in capital goods and heavy industries which produce machines that produce other machines. The plan therefore allocated large resources to public sector enterprises in steel, heavy engineering, chemicals, fertilisers, locomotives and electricity. Three steel plants — Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur — symbolised this thrust. Tariff walls and import licensing protected fledgling industries; the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 reserved 17 industries exclusively for the public sector. The model laid the foundation for India’s modern industrial base, scientific research and technical manpower. Critics, however, faulted it for neglecting agriculture, consumer goods, employment and exports, and for creating a heavily controlled economy.
3. Examine the achievements and limitations of the Green Revolution.
Answer: Faced with successive droughts (1965–67) and humiliating dependence on American PL-480 wheat, India launched the New Agricultural Strategy in the mid-1960s. Achievements: (i) wheat and rice yields rose sharply, ending famine and chronic shortages; (ii) India became self-sufficient in foodgrains by the early 1970s; (iii) buffer stocks made the public distribution system viable; (iv) a confident class of middle peasants emerged with political clout, contributing to the rise of regional and farmers’ parties; (v) rural infrastructure — irrigation, electricity, roads, mandis — expanded. Limitations: (i) benefits concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. while eastern and southern regions stagnated; (ii) gap between large and small farmers widened; (iii) heavy use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides depleted soil and groundwater; (iv) cropping pattern narrowed to wheat-rice, hurting pulses and oilseeds; (v) the strategy bypassed dryland and tribal areas. The Green Revolution thus increased food security but at the cost of new inequalities and ecological strain.
4. What were the political debates around bank nationalisation in 1969?
Answer: By the late 1960s the Congress was split between Indira Gandhi and the “Syndicate” of senior leaders. Looking for a populist plank, Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 major commercial banks in July 1969 through an ordinance. Supporters argued that banks served only big industrialists, ignored agriculture, small industry and rural areas, and that social control was overdue. Critics, including the Swatantra Party and the Jana Sangh, called it a political stunt and warned of inefficiency. The Supreme Court initially struck down the ordinance, prompting Indira Gandhi to push fresh legislation and adopt the slogan “Garibi Hatao”. Politically, the move earned her the support of the poor and consolidated her power; economically, branch expansion in rural India and priority-sector lending followed, although bureaucratic inefficiencies grew.
5. Compare the development debate of the 1950s with the post-1991 debate.
Answer: In the 1950s the dominant question was — how much State? The consensus was a strong State, public sector and central planning, with a regulated private sector and import substitution. After the balance-of-payments crisis of 1991, the question shifted to — how much market? Liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation became the new mantra. Industrial licensing was dismantled, public sector monopolies opened to competition, and trade and investment were liberalised. Growth accelerated to 6–8% but inequalities, jobless growth and rural distress raised fresh concerns. The two debates share a common thread — what is the right balance between growth and equity, efficiency and welfare, market and democracy. The Planning Commission was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015, signalling a shift from plan targets to indicative cooperative federalism.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The Planning Commission of India was set up in:
(a) 1947 (b) 1950 (c) 1951 (d) 1956
Answer: (b) 1950.
2. The First Five Year Plan covered the period:
(a) 1947–52 (b) 1950–55 (c) 1951–56 (d) 1952–57
Answer: (c) 1951–56.
3. The First Five Year Plan gave top priority to:
(a) Heavy industry (b) Defence (c) Agriculture and irrigation (d) Services
Answer: (c) Agriculture and irrigation.
4. The architect of the Second Five Year Plan was:
(a) K. N. Raj (b) P. C. Mahalanobis (c) Manmohan Singh (d) Amartya Sen
Answer: (b) P. C. Mahalanobis.
5. The Second Plan emphasised:
(a) Cottage industries (b) Heavy industry (c) Trade (d) Tourism
Answer: (b) Heavy industry.
6. Which session of the Congress declared a “socialistic pattern of society” as its goal?
(a) Karachi 1931 (b) Lahore 1929 (c) Avadi 1955 (d) Nagpur 1959
Answer: (c) Avadi 1955.
7. The Bombay Plan of 1944 was prepared by:
(a) Congress leaders (b) Industrialists (c) British officials (d) Trade unions
Answer: (b) Industrialists.
8. Which of the following is NOT a public sector steel plant set up under the Second Plan?
(a) Bhilai (b) Rourkela (c) Durgapur (d) Jamshedpur
Answer: (d) Jamshedpur (Tata Steel — private sector).
9. Land reforms in India were most successfully implemented in:
(a) Bihar (b) Kerala and West Bengal (c) Punjab (d) Gujarat
Answer: (b) Kerala and West Bengal.
10. The first Communist government in Kerala (1957) was led by:
(a) A. K. Gopalan (b) E. M. S. Namboodiripad (c) Jyoti Basu (d) C. Rajagopalachari
Answer: (b) E. M. S. Namboodiripad.
11. The Nagpur Resolution of the Congress (1959) was about:
(a) Bank nationalisation (b) Cooperative farming (c) Linguistic states (d) Non-alignment
Answer: (b) Cooperative farming.
12. The Swatantra Party was founded in 1959 by:
(a) Acharya Narendra Dev (b) C. Rajagopalachari (c) Ram Manohar Lohia (d) Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Answer: (b) C. Rajagopalachari.
13. The Green Revolution in India started in the:
(a) Early 1950s (b) Late 1950s (c) Mid 1960s (d) Late 1970s
Answer: (c) Mid 1960s.
14. Which two states benefited the most from the Green Revolution?
(a) Bihar and Odisha (b) Punjab and Haryana (c) Kerala and Tamil Nadu (d) Assam and West Bengal
Answer: (b) Punjab and Haryana.
15. PL-480 refers to:
(a) Indian fertiliser scheme (b) US food aid programme (c) Soviet loan (d) UN agriculture project
Answer: (b) US food aid programme.
16. Verghese Kurien is associated with:
(a) Wheat revolution (b) Milk cooperatives (Operation Flood) (c) Steel plants (d) Bank nationalisation
Answer: (b) Milk cooperatives (Operation Flood).
17. Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 major banks in:
(a) July 1966 (b) July 1969 (c) July 1971 (d) July 1975
Answer: (b) July 1969.
18. The slogan “Garibi Hatao” was given by:
(a) Lal Bahadur Shastri (b) Indira Gandhi (c) Morarji Desai (d) Charan Singh
Answer: (b) Indira Gandhi.
19. The “Hindu rate of growth” was coined by:
(a) Raj Krishna (b) Amartya Sen (c) Manmohan Singh (d) Jagdish Bhagwati
Answer: (a) Raj Krishna.
20. The Industrial Policy Resolution that strengthened the public sector was passed in:
(a) 1948 (b) 1951 (c) 1956 (d) 1969
Answer: (c) 1956.
21. The Planning Commission was replaced in 2015 by:
(a) Finance Commission (b) NITI Aayog (c) National Development Council (d) RBI
Answer: (b) NITI Aayog.
22. Charan Singh is associated with:
(a) Industrial workers (b) Big farmers and the rural lobby (c) Trade unions (d) Defence policy
Answer: (b) Big farmers and the rural lobby.
23. The Bhakra Nangal Dam is on which river?
(a) Ganga (b) Yamuna (c) Sutlej (d) Krishna
Answer: (c) Sutlej.
24. The Hirakud Dam is in:
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Odisha (c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Karnataka
Answer: (b) Odisha.
25. India’s “mixed economy” means:
(a) Only public sector (b) Only private sector (c) Coexistence of public and private sectors (d) Foreign sector dominance
Answer: (c) Coexistence of public and private sectors.
India’s Five Year Plans — Overview
| Plan | Period | Main Architect / PM | Major Thrust |
|---|---|---|---|
| First | 1951–56 | K. N. Raj / Nehru | Agriculture, irrigation, dams (Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud) |
| Second | 1956–61 | P. C. Mahalanobis / Nehru | Heavy industry, public sector, steel plants |
| Third | 1961–66 | Nehru / Shastri | Self-reliant economy; disrupted by wars and droughts |
| Plan Holiday | 1966–69 | Indira Gandhi | Annual plans; Green Revolution begins |
| Fourth | 1969–74 | Indira Gandhi | Growth with stability, bank nationalisation |
| Fifth | 1974–79 | Indira Gandhi / Janata | Removal of poverty (Garibi Hatao), self-reliance |
| Sixth | 1980–85 | Indira Gandhi | Modernisation, employment, poverty reduction |
| Seventh | 1985–90 | Rajiv Gandhi | Productivity, food, employment, technology |
| Eighth | 1992–97 | P. V. Narasimha Rao | Liberalisation, human resource development |
| Twelfth (last) | 2012–17 | Manmohan Singh | Faster, sustainable, inclusive growth; Planning Commission replaced by NITI Aayog (2015) |
Key Terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Planned Development | State-led strategy of setting targets and allocating resources through periodic plans. |
| Planning Commission | Body set up in 1950 to draft Five Year Plans; replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015. |
| Mixed Economy | Economic system combining public and private sectors with State regulation. |
| Mahalanobis Model | Industrial strategy of the Second Plan emphasising heavy industry and capital goods. |
| Bombay Plan (1944) | Industrialists’ blueprint for State-led industrialisation with a strong private sector. |
| Avadi Resolution (1955) | Congress declaration favouring a “socialistic pattern of society”. |
| Commanding Heights | Key sectors controlled by the State — heavy industry, banking, energy, transport. |
| Land Reforms | Abolition of intermediaries (zamindars), tenancy reform, land ceilings, redistribution. |
| Green Revolution | Use of HYV seeds, fertilisers, irrigation that raised foodgrain output from late 1960s. |
| HYV Seeds | High-Yielding Variety seeds developed for higher productivity. |
| PL-480 | US Public Law 480 food aid programme that supplied wheat to India in 1950s–60s. |
| Cooperative Farming | Pooling of land and labour by farmers to gain economies of scale. |
| Operation Flood | Milk cooperative movement led by Verghese Kurien (AMUL) making India the largest milk producer. |
| Bank Nationalisation | 1969 takeover of 14 private banks by the Indira Gandhi government. |
| Garibi Hatao | Indira Gandhi’s 1971 election slogan — “Remove Poverty”. |
| Hindu Rate of Growth | Term for India’s slow ~3.5% annual growth till 1980, coined by Raj Krishna. |
| Licence-Permit-Quota Raj | Critical term for the heavy regulatory regime of the planned economy. |
| NITI Aayog | National Institution for Transforming India — successor to the Planning Commission since 2015. |
Prepared for ASSEB Class 12 Political Science (Part B — Politics in India Since Independence). For more chapter-wise notes visit HSLC Guru.