Welcome, dear students of Class 12, to the comprehensive guide for Chapter 5: Realism from the ASSEB (Assam State School Education Board) Logic and Philosophy syllabus. This chapter introduces one of the most influential epistemological theories in the history of philosophy. Realism asserts that physical objects of the external world exist independently of the knowing mind. The chapter primarily examines two forms of Realism — Naive Realism (also called Common-sense Realism) and Scientific Realism (also called Critical Realism). The discussion further extends to Neo-Realism, Indian Realism (Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Charvaka, Buddhist), Western Realism (Aristotle, Locke, Reid), arguments for and against Realism, and the comparison between Realism and Idealism. This complete note has been carefully prepared as per the latest ASSEB syllabus and includes Textbook Question Answers, Additional MCQs, Fill in the blanks, True/False, Matching, Glossary and Comparison tables to help students secure full marks in their HS 2nd Year Final Examination.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Realism is an epistemological doctrine which holds that physical objects of the external world have an independent existence apart from the knowing mind. The objects of knowledge are not mental constructions; they exist whether or not anyone perceives them. The word “Realism” comes from the Latin word “res” meaning “thing.” Realism is the direct opposite of Idealism, which holds that reality is essentially mental or spiritual.
1. Naive Realism (Common-sense Realism): According to Naive Realism, our ideas are exact copies of external real things and their qualities. The object of knowledge is independent of the knower’s mind. There is a direct relation between the knower and the known. All the qualities of matter — colour, taste, smell, shape, size, extension — are real and objective and exist in the things themselves. This view is held by ordinary people and by philosophers like Thomas Reid (Scottish School of Common Sense) and the American neo-realists.
2. Scientific Realism (Critical Realism): Scientific Realism, founded by John Locke, accepts that external objects exist independently of the mind, but we cannot know them directly. We know them through their copies or representations (ideas) in the mind. Locke distinguished between Primary qualities (extension, shape, size, motion, solidity, number) which are objective and mind-independent, and Secondary qualities (colour, taste, smell, sound, temperature) which are subjective mental states caused by the primary qualities of objects.
3. Neo-Realism: Developed in the early 20th century by G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, S. Alexander, R. B. Perry, E. B. Holt, W. T. Marvin and others, Neo-Realism holds that the object of knowledge is directly present in consciousness without any intermediary representation.
4. Indian Realism: The Nyaya-Vaisheshika system, the Charvaka school, and the Buddhist Sautrantika and Vaibhasika schools all defend forms of Realism, accepting the independent reality of the external world.
5. Arguments for Realism: Independence of objects, possibility of error and illusion, intersubjective agreement, scientific knowledge, and practical experience all support Realism.
6. Arguments against Realism: The problem of perception, hallucinations and dreams, the argument from primary and secondary qualities, and the causal theory of perception are raised against Realism.
TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark each)
1. What is Realism?
Answer: Realism is the epistemological doctrine which holds that physical objects of the external world exist independently of the knowing mind.
2. From which Latin word is the word “Realism” derived?
Answer: The word “Realism” is derived from the Latin word “res” which means “thing.”
3. What are the two main forms of Realism discussed in this chapter?
Answer: The two main forms of Realism are Naive Realism (Common-sense Realism) and Scientific Realism (Critical Realism).
4. Who is the founder of Scientific Realism?
Answer: The British philosopher John Locke is the founder of Scientific Realism.
5. Name the famous book written by John Locke.
Answer: The famous book written by John Locke is “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690).
6. What is another name for Naive Realism?
Answer: Naive Realism is also called Common-sense Realism.
7. What is another name for Scientific Realism?
Answer: Scientific Realism is also called Critical Realism or Representative Realism.
8. According to Naive Realism, what is the relation between the knower and the known?
Answer: According to Naive Realism, the relation between the knower and the known is a direct relation, without any intermediary.
9. Does Naive Realism succeed in explaining error?
Answer: No, Naive Realism fails to explain the possibility of error, illusion and hallucination.
10. Are all qualities of an object independent of the mind according to Scientific Realism?
Answer: No, according to Scientific Realism, only primary qualities are independent of the mind; secondary qualities are mind-dependent.
11. Give one example of a primary quality.
Answer: Extension (or shape, size, solidity, motion, number) is a primary quality.
12. Give one example of a secondary quality.
Answer: Colour (or taste, smell, sound, temperature) is a secondary quality.
13. Who first distinguished between primary and secondary qualities?
Answer: John Locke first systematically distinguished between primary and secondary qualities.
14. Name two leading Neo-Realist philosophers.
Answer: G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell are two leading Neo-Realist philosophers.
15. Who wrote the article “The Refutation of Idealism”?
Answer: G. E. Moore wrote the article “The Refutation of Idealism” (1903).
16. Name the American Neo-Realist who wrote “The New Realism” (1912).
Answer: R. B. Perry, along with Holt, Marvin, Montague, Pitkin and Spaulding, contributed to “The New Realism” (1912).
17. Which Indian school is the chief representative of Realism?
Answer: The Nyaya-Vaisheshika school is the chief representative of Realism in Indian philosophy.
18. Which Buddhist schools accept Realism?
Answer: The Sautrantika and Vaibhasika Buddhist schools accept Realism.
19. Which Indian materialist school accepts Realism?
Answer: The Charvaka school is an Indian materialist school that accepts Realism.
20. Who is the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense?
Answer: Thomas Reid is the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense.
21. Who is regarded as the father of Western Realism?
Answer: Aristotle is regarded as the father of Western Realism.
22. What is the opposite doctrine of Realism?
Answer: Idealism is the opposite doctrine of Realism.
23. According to Naive Realism, where do the qualities of an object exist?
Answer: According to Naive Realism, all the qualities of an object exist in the object itself, independently of the perceiver.
24. According to Scientific Realism, how do we know external objects?
Answer: According to Scientific Realism, we know external objects only indirectly through their copies or representations (ideas) in our mind.
25. Mention one Critical Realist philosopher.
Answer: George Santayana (or Durant Drake, Roy Wood Sellars) is a Critical Realist philosopher.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2-3 Marks each)
1. Define Realism. State its central doctrine.
Answer: Realism is the epistemological theory which holds that the physical objects of the external world exist independently of the mind that perceives them. The central doctrine of Realism is that the existence of objects does not depend on their being known. Objects have their own being, qualities and reality whether anyone perceives them or not. Realism is opposed to Idealism, which holds that reality is essentially mental.
2. What is Naive Realism?
Answer: Naive Realism, also called Common-sense Realism, is the view that our ideas are exact copies of external real things and their qualities. According to this view, the external world exists independently of the knower, all the qualities (colour, taste, smell, shape, size) belong to the objects themselves, and we perceive these objects directly as they are. It is the view of ordinary, untrained common sense.
3. What is Scientific Realism?
Answer: Scientific Realism, also called Critical Realism, is the doctrine put forward by John Locke. It accepts that external objects exist independently of the mind, but holds that we cannot know them directly. We know them indirectly through their representations or ideas in our mind. It distinguishes primary qualities (objective) from secondary qualities (subjective and mind-dependent).
4. Mention any three characteristics of Naive Realism.
Answer: Three characteristics of Naive Realism are:
(i) The external object is independent of the knowing mind and exists in its own right.
(ii) Knowledge of the object is direct and immediate, without any intermediary representation.
(iii) All the qualities of the object — both primary and secondary — are objective and exist in the object itself.
5. Mention any three characteristics of Scientific Realism.
Answer: Three characteristics of Scientific Realism are:
(i) External objects exist independently of the knowing mind.
(ii) We know objects only indirectly, through their copies or representations (ideas) in the mind.
(iii) Primary qualities are objective and mind-independent, while secondary qualities are subjective and mind-dependent.
6. What are primary qualities? Give examples.
Answer: Primary qualities are those qualities of an object which are inseparable from it and which exist in the object itself, independently of the perceiver’s mind. They remain the same under all conditions of time and place. Examples include extension, shape, size, solidity, motion, rest, and number.
7. What are secondary qualities? Give examples.
Answer: Secondary qualities are those qualities of an object which are not in the object itself, but are produced in the mind of the perceiver by the action of the primary qualities. They are subjective and vary from person to person and from time to time. Examples include colour, taste, smell, sound, and temperature.
8. State any two arguments in favour of Realism.
Answer: Two arguments in favour of Realism are:
(i) Independence of objects: Objects continue to exist even when no one perceives them. A mountain or river exists whether or not anyone is looking at it.
(ii) Intersubjective agreement: Different observers perceive the same object and agree about its qualities, which proves that the object is independent of any single mind.
9. State any two arguments against Naive Realism.
Answer: Two arguments against Naive Realism are:
(i) Problem of error and illusion: Naive Realism cannot explain perceptual errors, illusions, hallucinations and dreams. If perception always reveals objects as they really are, errors should never occur.
(ii) Subjectivity of qualities: Secondary qualities like colour and taste vary from person to person, which shows they are not in the object itself, contrary to Naive Realism.
10. Who are the chief Neo-Realists? Mention their main view.
Answer: The chief Neo-Realists are G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, Samuel Alexander (English Neo-Realists) and R. B. Perry, E. B. Holt, W. T. Marvin, W. P. Montague, W. B. Pitkin and E. G. Spaulding (American Neo-Realists). Their main view is that the object of knowledge is directly present in consciousness without any intermediary representation; the mind and the object are independent realities related by the cognitive act.
11. What is the view of the Nyaya-Vaisheshika school regarding Realism?
Answer: The Nyaya-Vaisheshika school is the most prominent Realist school of Indian philosophy. It holds that the external world is real and consists of nine substances (earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul, mind). Atoms (paramanus) are the ultimate constituents of physical reality. Knowledge directly reveals the external object as it exists independently of the knower.
12. What is the Charvaka view on Realism?
Answer: The Charvaka school is the materialist school of Indian philosophy. It accepts only the four material elements — earth, water, fire and air — as real. The external world of perception is real, and only that which is given in sense perception (pratyaksha) is admitted as the source of valid knowledge. The Charvaka view is therefore a form of materialistic Realism.
13. What is the difference between Sautrantika and Vaibhasika Realism?
Answer: Both Sautrantika and Vaibhasika are Buddhist Realist schools, but they differ on perception:
(i) The Vaibhasika school holds direct realism — the external object is directly perceived (Bahya-Pratyaksha-Vada).
(ii) The Sautrantika school holds indirect or representative realism — the external object is inferred from the mental representation (Bahya-Anumeya-Vada).
14. Mention any two Western Realist philosophers and their contribution.
Answer:
(i) Aristotle defended Realism by holding that universals exist in particular objects (immanent realism) and that the external world is real and knowable.
(ii) John Locke developed Scientific Realism and the distinction between primary and secondary qualities in his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding.”
15. State the main difference between Naive Realism and Scientific Realism.
Answer: The main difference is on the manner of knowing the external object. Naive Realism holds that we know the external object directly and that all its qualities (primary and secondary) are objective. Scientific Realism holds that we know the object indirectly through ideas in the mind, and only primary qualities are objective while secondary qualities are subjective.
16. What is meant by the “causal theory of perception”?
Answer: The causal theory of perception, associated with Locke, holds that external objects cause sensations or ideas in the mind through the sense organs. We do not perceive the object directly; we perceive its effect on us. This theory supports Scientific Realism but raises the problem of how we can know the cause if we know only the effect.
17. Why is Naive Realism criticised as “naive”?
Answer: Naive Realism is called “naive” because it is the unreflective view of common sense which accepts perception at face value without philosophical analysis. It overlooks the difficulties of error, illusion, hallucination and the subjective variation of qualities. It fails to recognise that the perceiver contributes something to the act of perception.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (5-8 Marks each)
1. What is Realism? Explain its different forms.
Answer: Realism is the epistemological doctrine which holds that physical objects of the external world have a real and independent existence apart from the knowing mind. The word is derived from the Latin “res,” meaning “thing.” According to Realism, objects do not depend for their existence on being perceived. They have their own being, qualities and properties whether or not any mind is aware of them.
Forms of Realism:
(i) Naive Realism (Common-sense Realism): The simple, unreflective view that we perceive objects directly as they really are, with all their qualities belonging to them objectively. Held by ordinary people and by Thomas Reid.
(ii) Scientific Realism (Critical Realism): The view of John Locke that we know objects indirectly through ideas in the mind. Distinguishes primary (objective) from secondary (subjective) qualities.
(iii) Neo-Realism: The 20th century revival by Moore, Russell, Alexander, Perry, Holt and others, asserting direct presence of the object in consciousness.
(iv) Indian Realism: The Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Charvaka and Buddhist (Sautrantika, Vaibhasika) schools all defend the reality of the external world.
(v) Western Realism: From Aristotle through Locke, Reid, the American neo-realists (Perry, Holt, Marvin) and the Critical Realists (Santayana, Drake, Sellars).
2. Discuss Naive Realism in detail. Explain its main characteristics and criticise it.
Answer: Naive Realism, also known as Common-sense Realism, is the view that the world we perceive is exactly as it appears to us. It is the spontaneous belief of ordinary people who have not engaged in philosophical reflection. The Scottish School of Common Sense led by Thomas Reid, and the American Neo-Realists, are its main philosophical defenders.
Main Characteristics:
(i) Independent existence: The external object exists independently of the knower’s mind. Whether anyone perceives the object or not, it exists with all its qualities.
(ii) Direct knowledge: Knowledge of the object is direct and immediate. There is no intermediary idea or representation between the knower and the known.
(iii) Reality of all qualities: All the qualities of the object — colour, taste, smell, shape, size, weight, hardness — are real and objective. They belong to the object itself.
(iv) Exact copy theory: Our ideas are exact copies of external things and their qualities.
(v) Correspondence theory of truth: A judgement is true if it corresponds to the actual state of affairs in the external world.
(vi) Universal sensation: All normal observers perceive the same object in the same way.
Criticism:
(i) Failure to explain error: If perception always reveals the object as it is, then perceptual errors and illusions should be impossible. But errors do occur (e.g. a stick appears bent in water).
(ii) Hallucinations and dreams: Naive Realism cannot account for hallucinations, dreams and illusions where objects appear though no real object is present.
(iii) Subjective variation of qualities: Colours, tastes and smells vary from person to person, which proves they are not in the object alone.
(iv) Scientific evidence: Modern physics shows that objects are made of atoms and waves, not the coloured and warm things of perception.
(v) Ignores the role of the perceiver: Perception involves the sense organs, brain and mind of the perceiver, which Naive Realism overlooks.
Despite these criticisms, Naive Realism captures an important truth: that there is a real world independent of our minds.
3. Discuss Scientific Realism. Distinguish between primary and secondary qualities.
Answer: Scientific Realism, also called Critical Realism or Representative Realism, was developed by the British philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) in his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690). It is a more sophisticated form of Realism that takes account of the difficulties of common-sense Realism while preserving its core conviction that the external world is real.
Main Doctrines:
(i) The external world exists independently of the knower’s mind.
(ii) We do not know external objects directly. We know them only through ideas or representations in the mind.
(iii) Some qualities of objects (primary) are objective and exist in the objects; others (secondary) are subjective and are produced in the mind by the action of the primary qualities on the sense organs.
(iv) Knowledge is therefore representative, not direct.
Distinction between Primary and Secondary Qualities:
[wp:table]
| Primary Qualities | Secondary Qualities |
|---|---|
| Inseparable from the object; exist in the object itself. | Not in the object; produced in the perceiver’s mind. |
| Objective and mind-independent. | Subjective and mind-dependent. |
| Constant under all conditions of time and place. | Vary from person to person and time to time. |
| Examples: extension, shape, size, solidity, motion, number. | Examples: colour, taste, smell, sound, temperature. |
| Cause sensations in us by acting on the senses. | Effects produced in the mind by primary qualities. |
| Studied by physical sciences (physics, geometry). | Studied by psychology and physiology. |
| Resemble the qualities in the object. | Do not resemble anything in the object. |
[/wp:table]
Criticism of Scientific Realism:
(i) Berkeley argued that the distinction between primary and secondary qualities cannot be maintained, because primary qualities also vary with conditions and depend on perception.
(ii) If we know only ideas, how can we know that they correspond to external objects? This leads to scepticism.
(iii) The causal theory raises the question of how we can know the cause when we know only the effect.
4. Discuss Neo-Realism. Mention its chief exponents and main doctrines.
Answer: Neo-Realism is a 20th century revival of Realism that arose as a reaction against the dominant Idealism of the 19th century. It seeks to defend the independent existence of objects without falling into the difficulties of representative Realism.
Chief Exponents:
(i) English Neo-Realists: G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, Samuel Alexander.
(ii) American Neo-Realists: R. B. Perry, E. B. Holt, W. T. Marvin, W. P. Montague, W. B. Pitkin, E. G. Spaulding (authors of “The New Realism,” 1912).
(iii) Critical Realists: George Santayana, Durant Drake, Roy Wood Sellars (authors of “Essays in Critical Realism,” 1920).
Main Doctrines:
(i) Independence of objects: Physical objects exist independently of the mind.
(ii) Direct presentation: The object is directly present in consciousness, not represented by an idea. Moore’s “Refutation of Idealism” (1903) argues that consciousness and its object are distinct.
(iii) External relations: Knowing is an external relation between the mind and the object; it does not change either.
(iv) Pluralism: The world consists of many independent things and relations.
(v) Rejection of esse est percipi: Berkeley’s slogan that “to be is to be perceived” is rejected; objects exist whether or not they are perceived.
Critical Realists like Santayana modified Neo-Realism by reintroducing a kind of representation: we apprehend the object through “essences” or characters, but the object itself is independent.
5. Explain the Indian Realist tradition.
Answer: Indian philosophy contains several powerful Realist schools that defend the independent reality of the external world.
(i) Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The most thoroughgoing Realist school. The Vaisheshika of Kanada classifies reality into seven categories (padarthas): substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, inherence and non-existence. There are nine substances (earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul, mind), and atoms (paramanus) are the ultimate physical reality. The Nyaya of Gautama provides the logical and epistemological framework, accepting four sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and verbal testimony. Knowledge directly reveals the independently existing object.
(ii) Charvaka (Lokayata): The materialist school. Only the four material elements — earth, water, fire, air — are real (some Charvakas also accept ether). Consciousness is a by-product of matter. Only perception (pratyaksha) is admitted as a valid source of knowledge. This is a strict materialistic Realism.
(iii) Buddhist Realism:
– Vaibhasika: Holds direct realism (Bahya-Pratyaksha-Vada). The external object is directly perceived. The world consists of momentary atoms and consciousness.
– Sautrantika: Holds representative realism (Bahya-Anumeya-Vada). The external object is not directly perceived but is inferred from the mental representation it produces.
These Indian schools together establish a rich Realist tradition that parallels and in many ways anticipates the Western Realist developments.
6. Discuss the arguments for and against Realism.
Answer:
Arguments FOR Realism:
(i) Independence of objects: Objects exist before any mind perceives them and continue to exist after. The mountains existed before there were any human beings.
(ii) Possibility of error and illusion: Errors are possible only if there is a real object that we can be wrong about. The very fact of error presupposes Realism.
(iii) Intersubjective agreement: Different observers perceive the same object and largely agree about its qualities. This is best explained by a common independent object.
(iv) Practical experience: Our practical activities — eating, walking, working — succeed because the world is really as we take it to be.
(v) Scientific knowledge: The success of natural science presupposes that there is a real world to be discovered.
(vi) Causation: Things act on us through our senses; this presupposes their independent existence.
Arguments AGAINST Realism:
(i) Problem of perception: We perceive only sensations or ideas in our minds, not external objects directly. How can we be sure the ideas correspond to objects?
(ii) Hallucinations and dreams: In hallucinations and dreams, we have perceptions without any external object.
(iii) Primary vs secondary qualities (Locke and Berkeley): Berkeley argued that primary qualities are no less mind-dependent than secondary qualities; therefore the whole object is mind-dependent.
(iv) Causal theory of perception: If we know only effects (sensations), we cannot know the cause (the object).
(v) Relativity of perception: The same object appears differently to different people and in different conditions, so qualities cannot be in the object alone.
(vi) Idealist argument (esse est percipi): “To be is to be perceived”; nothing exists outside consciousness.
Realists answer by maintaining that error and illusion are themselves intelligible only against a background of true perception of real things.
7. Compare Realism and Idealism.
Answer:
[wp:table]
| Basis | Realism | Idealism |
|---|---|---|
| Central doctrine | External objects exist independently of mind. | Reality is essentially mental or spiritual. |
| Status of external world | Real and independent. | Mental construction or appearance. |
| Relation of object to mind | Object is independent of consciousness. | Object depends on consciousness. |
| Source of knowledge | Sense perception of external things. | Reason and inner experience. |
| View on matter | Matter is real. | Matter is mind-dependent or unreal. |
| Theory of truth | Correspondence theory. | Coherence theory. |
| Famous slogan | Objects exist whether perceived or not. | “Esse est percipi” (Berkeley). |
| Main exponents (West) | Aristotle, Locke, Reid, Moore, Russell. | Plato, Berkeley, Hegel, Bradley. |
| Main exponents (India) | Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Charvaka, Sautrantika, Vaibhasika. | Advaita Vedanta, Yogachara Buddhism. |
| Approach | Common-sense and scientific. | Speculative and metaphysical. |
[/wp:table]
Both doctrines are partial truths. Realism captures the independence of the external world; Idealism captures the role of mind in knowledge. Many later thinkers attempt syntheses (e.g. Kant’s Critical Idealism).
8. Distinguish between Naive Realism and Scientific Realism.
Answer:
[wp:table]
| Basis | Naive Realism | Scientific Realism |
|---|---|---|
| Other name | Common-sense Realism. | Critical / Representative Realism. |
| Founder / Exponents | Thomas Reid, ordinary common sense. | John Locke. |
| Knowledge of object | Direct and immediate. | Indirect, through ideas in the mind. |
| Status of qualities | All qualities are objective and in the object. | Primary qualities objective; secondary qualities subjective. |
| Distinction of qualities | No distinction made. | Clear distinction between primary and secondary. |
| Theory of ideas | Ideas are exact copies of objects. | Ideas represent objects but secondary qualities do not resemble anything in the object. |
| Explanation of error | Cannot explain error or illusion. | Can explain error through mental representation. |
| Scientific basis | Pre-scientific, common-sense. | Based on scientific analysis of perception. |
| Reflective level | Unreflective and naive. | Critical and reflective. |
[/wp:table]
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. The word “Realism” is derived from the Latin word:
(a) Idea
(b) Res
(c) Mens
(d) Sensus
Answer: (b) Res
2. Naive Realism is also known as:
(a) Critical Realism
(b) Scientific Realism
(c) Common-sense Realism
(d) Neo-Realism
Answer: (c) Common-sense Realism
3. The founder of Scientific Realism is:
(a) Berkeley
(b) Hume
(c) Locke
(d) Kant
Answer: (c) Locke
4. The book “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” was written by:
(a) Hume
(b) Locke
(c) Reid
(d) Russell
Answer: (b) Locke
5. Which of the following is a primary quality?
(a) Colour
(b) Taste
(c) Extension
(d) Smell
Answer: (c) Extension
6. Which of the following is a secondary quality?
(a) Shape
(b) Size
(c) Solidity
(d) Colour
Answer: (d) Colour
7. Which philosopher wrote “The Refutation of Idealism” (1903)?
(a) Russell
(b) Moore
(c) Alexander
(d) Perry
Answer: (b) Moore
8. The Scottish School of Common Sense was founded by:
(a) Hume
(b) Locke
(c) Thomas Reid
(d) Adam Smith
Answer: (c) Thomas Reid
9. The most prominent Realist school of Indian philosophy is:
(a) Advaita Vedanta
(b) Yogachara
(c) Nyaya-Vaisheshika
(d) Madhyamika
Answer: (c) Nyaya-Vaisheshika
10. The Buddhist school of direct realism is:
(a) Yogachara
(b) Madhyamika
(c) Sautrantika
(d) Vaibhasika
Answer: (d) Vaibhasika
11. The Buddhist school of representative realism is:
(a) Vaibhasika
(b) Sautrantika
(c) Yogachara
(d) Madhyamika
Answer: (b) Sautrantika
12. The Charvaka school is:
(a) Idealist
(b) Spiritualist
(c) Materialist Realist
(d) Sceptic
Answer: (c) Materialist Realist
13. According to Naive Realism, ideas are:
(a) Mental constructions
(b) Exact copies of external things
(c) Innate
(d) Imaginary
Answer: (b) Exact copies of external things
14. The opposite doctrine of Realism is:
(a) Pragmatism
(b) Existentialism
(c) Idealism
(d) Scepticism
Answer: (c) Idealism
15. The American Neo-Realists published their book in:
(a) 1900
(b) 1912
(c) 1920
(d) 1932
Answer: (b) 1912
16. Which of the following is NOT a Critical Realist?
(a) Santayana
(b) Drake
(c) Sellars
(d) Berkeley
Answer: (d) Berkeley
17. According to Scientific Realism, secondary qualities are:
(a) Objective
(b) Mind-independent
(c) Mind-dependent
(d) Non-existent
Answer: (c) Mind-dependent
18. The father of Western Realism is generally considered to be:
(a) Plato
(b) Aristotle
(c) Socrates
(d) Heraclitus
Answer: (b) Aristotle
19. The Vaisheshika school accepts how many substances?
(a) Five
(b) Seven
(c) Nine
(d) Twelve
Answer: (c) Nine
20. Which of the following is NOT a primary quality according to Locke?
(a) Solidity
(b) Motion
(c) Sound
(d) Number
Answer: (c) Sound
21. The slogan “esse est percipi” belongs to:
(a) Locke
(b) Berkeley
(c) Reid
(d) Moore
Answer: (b) Berkeley
22. Naive Realism fails to explain:
(a) Truth
(b) Reality
(c) Error and illusion
(d) Perception
Answer: (c) Error and illusion
23. According to Scientific Realism, how do we know external objects?
(a) Directly
(b) Through ideas/representations
(c) Through intuition
(d) Through revelation
Answer: (b) Through ideas/representations
24. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?
(a) Locke – Idealist
(b) Berkeley – Realist
(c) Moore – Neo-Realist
(d) Hegel – Realist
Answer: (c) Moore – Neo-Realist
25. The atoms (paramanus) are accepted as ultimate reality by:
(a) Yogachara
(b) Advaita
(c) Vaisheshika
(d) Madhyamika
Answer: (c) Vaisheshika
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Realism is the doctrine that physical objects exist __________ of the mind. (independently)
2. The word “Realism” comes from the Latin word __________ meaning “thing.” (res)
3. Naive Realism is also called __________ Realism. (Common-sense)
4. Scientific Realism was founded by __________. (John Locke)
5. Locke’s famous book is “An Essay Concerning Human __________.” (Understanding)
6. According to Scientific Realism, primary qualities are __________ while secondary qualities are __________. (objective; subjective)
7. Extension, shape and size are __________ qualities. (primary)
8. Colour, taste and smell are __________ qualities. (secondary)
9. G. E. Moore wrote “The __________ of Idealism.” (Refutation)
10. The American Neo-Realists published “The New Realism” in the year __________. (1912)
11. The Scottish School of Common Sense was founded by __________. (Thomas Reid)
12. The chief Realist school of Indian philosophy is __________. (Nyaya-Vaisheshika)
13. The materialist school of Indian philosophy is __________. (Charvaka)
14. The Buddhist school of direct realism is __________. (Vaibhasika)
15. The Buddhist school of representative realism is __________. (Sautrantika)
16. Aristotle is regarded as the father of __________ Realism. (Western)
17. The opposite doctrine of Realism is __________. (Idealism)
18. According to Naive Realism, ideas are __________ copies of external things. (exact)
19. The Vaisheshika school accepts __________ substances. (nine)
20. The slogan “esse est percipi” was put forward by __________. (Berkeley)
21. According to the causal theory, external objects produce __________ in the mind through the senses. (sensations / ideas)
22. Critical Realism was developed by Santayana, Drake and __________. (Sellars)
23. Bertrand __________ is a leading English Neo-Realist. (Russell)
24. The relation between knower and known in Naive Realism is __________. (direct)
25. The Charvaka accepts only __________ as a valid source of knowledge. (perception / pratyaksha)
TRUE OR FALSE
1. Realism holds that objects exist only in the mind. (False)
2. Naive Realism is the view of common sense. (True)
3. John Locke is the founder of Scientific Realism. (True)
4. Colour is a primary quality according to Locke. (False)
5. Extension is a primary quality. (True)
6. According to Naive Realism, our ideas are exact copies of external things. (True)
7. Naive Realism can easily explain error and illusion. (False)
8. Scientific Realism distinguishes between primary and secondary qualities. (True)
9. G. E. Moore was an Idealist. (False)
10. The Nyaya-Vaisheshika school is Realist. (True)
11. Yogachara Buddhism is a Realist school. (False)
12. Charvaka is the materialist school of India. (True)
13. The Vaibhasika school holds representative realism. (False)
14. The Sautrantika school holds direct realism. (False)
15. Aristotle is regarded as the father of Western Realism. (True)
16. Idealism is the opposite of Realism. (True)
17. According to Realism, the external world depends on consciousness. (False)
18. Bertrand Russell is a Neo-Realist. (True)
19. Berkeley defended Realism. (False)
20. Thomas Reid founded the Scottish School of Common Sense. (True)
MATCHING
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| Column A | Column B |
|---|---|
| 1. John Locke | (a) Founder of Scientific Realism |
| 2. G. E. Moore | (b) Refutation of Idealism |
| 3. Thomas Reid | (c) Scottish Common Sense School |
| 4. R. B. Perry | (d) American Neo-Realist |
| 5. Santayana | (e) Critical Realist |
| 6. Aristotle | (f) Father of Western Realism |
| 7. Vaibhasika | (g) Direct Realism (Buddhist) |
| 8. Sautrantika | (h) Representative Realism (Buddhist) |
| 9. Nyaya-Vaisheshika | (i) Indian Realist school |
| 10. Charvaka | (j) Indian Materialist Realism |
| 11. Berkeley | (k) Esse est percipi (Idealist) |
| 12. Bertrand Russell | (l) English Neo-Realist |
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Answer Key: 1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d, 5-e, 6-f, 7-g, 8-h, 9-i, 10-j, 11-k, 12-l.
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS
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| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Realism | The doctrine that physical objects exist independently of the mind. |
| Idealism | The doctrine that reality is essentially mental or spiritual. |
| Epistemology | The branch of philosophy dealing with the nature, origin and validity of knowledge. |
| Naive Realism | The common-sense view that objects are perceived directly as they are. |
| Scientific Realism | Locke’s view that objects are known indirectly through ideas; primary qualities objective, secondary subjective. |
| Critical Realism | A 20th century form of Realism (Santayana, Drake, Sellars) that introduces “essences” as the medium of knowledge. |
| Neo-Realism | A 20th century revival of Realism (Moore, Russell, Perry, Holt) holding direct presence of object in consciousness. |
| Primary Qualities | Mind-independent qualities of objects (extension, shape, size, solidity, motion, number). |
| Secondary Qualities | Mind-dependent qualities (colour, taste, smell, sound, temperature) produced by primary qualities. |
| Causal Theory of Perception | The view that external objects cause sensations in the mind through the senses. |
| Representative Realism | Another name for Scientific / Critical Realism — knowledge through representations. |
| Hallucination | A perception without any external object. |
| Illusion | A misperception of a real object. |
| Correspondence Theory of Truth | The view that a statement is true if it corresponds to the facts. |
| Esse est percipi | Berkeley’s idealist slogan — “to be is to be perceived.” |
| Paramanu | The atom; ultimate physical reality in Vaisheshika and Buddhist Realism. |
| Pratyaksha | Sense perception; the only valid pramana for the Charvaka. |
| Bahya-Pratyaksha-Vada | Doctrine of direct perception of external objects (Vaibhasika). |
| Bahya-Anumeya-Vada | Doctrine of inferred external objects (Sautrantika). |
| Substance (Dravya) | An independent reality; Vaisheshika lists nine. |
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COMPARISON TABLE: Schools of Realism at a Glance
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| School | Main Exponents | Core Doctrine |
|---|---|---|
| Naive Realism | Thomas Reid; ordinary common sense | Objects perceived directly; all qualities objective. |
| Scientific Realism | John Locke | Indirect knowledge via ideas; primary objective, secondary subjective. |
| Neo-Realism (English) | G. E. Moore, B. Russell, S. Alexander | Object directly present in consciousness; rejects esse est percipi. |
| Neo-Realism (American) | Perry, Holt, Marvin, Montague, Pitkin, Spaulding | External relations doctrine; pluralism. |
| Critical Realism | Santayana, Drake, Sellars | Knowledge through “essences”; object independent. |
| Nyaya-Vaisheshika | Gautama, Kanada | Atomistic Realism; nine substances; four pramanas. |
| Charvaka | Brihaspati (legendary) | Materialist Realism; only pratyaksha valid. |
| Vaibhasika | Buddhist Realist | Direct realism; Bahya-Pratyaksha-Vada. |
| Sautrantika | Buddhist Realist | Representative realism; Bahya-Anumeya-Vada. |
| Aristotelian Realism | Aristotle | Universals exist in particular objects; immanent realism. |
[/wp:table]
QUICK REVISION POINTS
1. Realism = External objects exist independently of mind.
2. Naive Realism = Direct perception, all qualities objective.
3. Scientific Realism = Indirect knowledge, primary objective + secondary subjective.
4. Locke’s book = “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690).
5. Primary qualities = extension, shape, size, solidity, motion, number.
6. Secondary qualities = colour, taste, smell, sound, temperature.
7. Neo-Realists = Moore, Russell, Alexander, Perry, Holt, Marvin.
8. Critical Realists = Santayana, Drake, Sellars.
9. Indian Realism = Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Charvaka, Sautrantika, Vaibhasika.
10. Father of Western Realism = Aristotle.
11. Common Sense School = Thomas Reid (Scottish).
12. Opposite of Realism = Idealism.
13. Naive Realism fails to explain error, illusion, hallucination.
14. Berkeley’s slogan = “esse est percipi” (Idealist).
15. Causal Theory = objects cause sensations through senses.
EXTRA LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (For HOTS / 8 Marks)
9. Critically examine Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities.
Answer: John Locke, in his celebrated work “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690), introduced one of the most important distinctions in modern philosophy — the distinction between primary and secondary qualities of bodies. According to Locke, primary qualities are those qualities which are “utterly inseparable from the body in what state soever it be” — they belong to the object itself and exist whether or not anyone perceives the object. The list of primary qualities given by Locke includes solidity, extension, figure (shape), motion or rest, and number. Our ideas of these qualities resemble the qualities themselves; that is, the idea of a square thing actually resembles the square shape that exists in the body.
Secondary qualities, on the other hand, are not in the bodies themselves but are “powers” in the bodies to produce various sensations in us by means of their primary qualities acting on our sense organs. Colour, taste, smell, sound, and warmth or cold are secondary qualities. Our ideas of secondary qualities do not resemble anything in the object; the redness we see, for example, does not exist as redness in the apple, but is a sensation produced in our mind by the reflection of certain wavelengths of light, which is itself a configuration of primary qualities (motion, number, etc.) of tiny particles.
Critical Examination:
(i) Berkeley’s Criticism: The Idealist philosopher George Berkeley argued that Locke’s distinction cannot be maintained. The arguments Locke uses to show that secondary qualities are mind-dependent — that they vary with the perceiver, with conditions, with the state of the sense organs — apply equally to primary qualities. The size of an object varies depending on distance; its shape varies with the angle of viewing; its motion is relative to the observer. Therefore primary qualities are no less mind-dependent than secondary qualities. Berkeley concluded that all qualities are ideas in the mind, and reality is mental.
(ii) Hume’s Scepticism: David Hume followed Berkeley in rejecting the distinction. He argued that we have no way of knowing whether our ideas correspond to anything outside the mind, since all we ever experience are our own ideas.
(iii) Modern Physics: Modern physics has further complicated the distinction. The “primary” qualities of solidity and extension turn out, on close analysis, to be largely empty space populated by tiny particles, themselves better described in terms of fields and probabilities. Even shape and motion become observer-dependent in relativity theory.
(iv) Defence: Despite these criticisms, the distinction has practical value. Primary qualities are the qualities that science measures and quantifies, and they remain constant in a way that secondary qualities do not. Even Berkeley admitted that the distinction has scientific utility, even if not metaphysical depth.
In conclusion, Locke’s distinction is a brilliant contribution to epistemology that captures the difference between measurable objective properties and qualitative subjective experiences. Although it cannot be defended in its original form, it remains foundational for understanding the relation between mind and world.
10. “Naive Realism is the unreflective view of common sense, while Scientific Realism is its critical refinement.” Discuss.
Answer: The relation between Naive Realism and Scientific Realism is one of progress from spontaneous belief to reflective theory. The ordinary person is a Naive Realist by default — without reflection, we take the world to be exactly as it appears, with all its colours, sounds, smells and shapes belonging to the things themselves. This common-sense view is the natural starting point of all thinking about knowledge.
The unreflective character of Naive Realism:
Naive Realism is unreflective because it takes perception at face value. It assumes:
(i) That the world is exactly as it appears to be.
(ii) That perception is a transparent window onto reality.
(iii) That there is nothing problematic about the relation between mind and object.
(iv) That all observers see the same thing in the same way.
These assumptions go unchallenged in everyday life. Common sense does not pause to ask whether the bent appearance of a stick in water is illusory, or why the same dish tastes different to different people. It simply trusts perception.
The critical refinement of Scientific Realism:
When we begin to reflect on the difficulties — illusions, hallucinations, errors, the variation of qualities between observers, the findings of physiology and physics — we are forced to give up Naive Realism in its pure form. John Locke’s Scientific Realism is the natural critical refinement:
(i) It retains the core conviction that there is a real external world independent of mind.
(ii) It admits that we know this world indirectly, through ideas in the mind.
(iii) It distinguishes those qualities that really belong to the object (primary) from those that are produced in us by the object (secondary).
(iv) It explains errors and illusions as misrepresentations of the object by ideas in the mind.
Thus Scientific Realism preserves what is true in Naive Realism (the existence of a mind-independent world) while correcting what is false in it (the assumption that all qualities are objective and that perception is direct).
Continuing critical refinement:
The history of philosophy did not stop with Locke. Berkeley pushed Locke’s reasoning further to argue that all qualities are mind-dependent. The Neo-Realists of the 20th century, dissatisfied with the representative theory of Locke, argued for direct realism on a more sophisticated basis. Critical Realists like Santayana introduced the notion of “essences” as the medium of knowledge.
In sum, Naive Realism is the unreflective starting point, Scientific Realism the first reflective refinement, and the subsequent history of Realism is the continuing effort to do justice both to the independence of the world and to the role of mind in knowing it.
11. Explain in detail the Nyaya-Vaisheshika theory of Realism.
Answer: The Nyaya-Vaisheshika system is the most thoroughgoing Realist school of Indian philosophy. It is actually a fusion of two originally distinct schools — the Nyaya of Gautama (Akshapada) and the Vaisheshika of Kanada (Uluka) — which gradually merged because of their shared Realist outlook.
Vaisheshika Metaphysics:
Kanada’s Vaisheshika provides the metaphysical framework. It classifies all reality into seven categories (padarthas):
(i) Dravya (substance) — nine in number: earth, water, fire, air, ether (akasha), time, space (dik), soul (atman) and mind (manas).
(ii) Guna (quality) — twenty-four qualities like colour, taste, smell, touch, number, dimension, etc.
(iii) Karma (action) — motions like upward, downward, contraction, expansion, going.
(iv) Samanya (generality) — universals that inhere in particulars.
(v) Vishesha (particularity) — the unique individuality of eternal substances.
(vi) Samavaya (inherence) — the relation by which qualities, actions and universals reside in substances.
(vii) Abhava (non-existence) — added by later Vaisheshikas.
The first four substances (earth, water, fire, air) are made up of eternal, indivisible atoms (paramanus). The world is created by the combination of these atoms under the will of God.
Nyaya Epistemology:
Gautama’s Nyaya provides the epistemological theory. It accepts four sources of valid knowledge (pramanas):
(i) Pratyaksha (perception) — direct sensory knowledge of external objects.
(ii) Anumana (inference) — knowledge of one thing from another by the relation of invariable concomitance (vyapti).
(iii) Upamana (comparison) — knowledge by analogy.
(iv) Shabda (verbal testimony) — knowledge from authoritative statements.
Realist Features:
(i) The external world consisting of substances with their qualities and actions is real and independent of the knower.
(ii) Knowledge is a quality of the soul (atman) which directly reveals the external object.
(iii) There is a one-to-one correspondence between idea and object — knowledge mirrors reality.
(iv) Both universals and particulars are real.
(v) Errors and illusions are explained by the doctrine of “anyathakhyati” (apprehending one thing as another) — the rope is apprehended as a snake because of mistaken identification, not because perception is unreal.
The Nyaya-Vaisheshika system is thus a comprehensive, systematic Realism that anticipates by centuries many of the developments in Western Realism. Its atomism, its theory of substance and quality, and its epistemology of perception and inference make it a major philosophical achievement.
IMPORTANT NAMES AND DATES TABLE
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| Philosopher | Period | School / Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Aristotle | 384-322 BCE | Greek; Father of Western Realism; immanent universals. |
| Kanada | c. 6th century BCE | Founder of Vaisheshika; atomism; padarthas. |
| Gautama (Akshapada) | c. 2nd century BCE | Founder of Nyaya; four pramanas. |
| John Locke | 1632-1704 | English; Founder of Scientific Realism; primary/secondary qualities. |
| Thomas Reid | 1710-1796 | Scottish; Common Sense Realism. |
| G. E. Moore | 1873-1958 | English Neo-Realist; Refutation of Idealism (1903). |
| Bertrand Russell | 1872-1970 | English Neo-Realist; logical analysis. |
| Samuel Alexander | 1859-1938 | English Neo-Realist; Space, Time and Deity. |
| R. B. Perry | 1876-1957 | American Neo-Realist; The New Realism (1912). |
| E. B. Holt | 1873-1946 | American Neo-Realist. |
| W. T. Marvin | 1872-1944 | American Neo-Realist. |
| George Santayana | 1863-1952 | Critical Realist; doctrine of essences. |
| Durant Drake | 1878-1933 | Critical Realist. |
| Roy Wood Sellars | 1880-1973 | Critical Realist; physical realism. |
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EXAMINATION-ORIENTED IMPORTANT QUESTIONS (Most Probable)
1. Define Realism. Discuss its two main forms.
2. Explain Naive Realism. State its characteristics and criticisms.
3. What is Scientific Realism? Distinguish between primary and secondary qualities.
4. Discuss the differences between Naive Realism and Scientific Realism.
5. Compare Realism and Idealism.
6. Who are the Neo-Realists? Discuss their main doctrines.
7. Discuss the Indian Realist tradition with special reference to Nyaya-Vaisheshika.
8. State the arguments for and against Realism.
9. Critically examine Locke’s theory of primary and secondary qualities.
10. Explain the difference between Sautrantika and Vaibhasika Realism.
We hope this comprehensive note on Class 12 Logic and Philosophy Chapter 5 — Realism has helped you understand all the aspects of Realism — its forms, exponents, arguments and criticisms. Practise the questions thoroughly, revise the comparison tables, and you will be well prepared for your ASSEB HS 2nd Year Final Examination. Best of luck, dear students!