Class 12 History Chapter 2 — Political and Economic History: How Inscriptions Tell a Story
Welcome to HSLC Guru. This page contains complete English-medium notes and question-answers for ASSEB Class 12 History (NCERT Theme 2) — Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE). The chapter explores how inscriptions, coins and texts help reconstruct the political and economic life of early India, from the sixteen mahajanapadas to the Gupta age.
About the Chapter
The roughly 1,500 years between 600 BCE and 600 CE saw extraordinary political, social and economic change in the Indian subcontinent. Inscriptions on stone, copper plates, coins, pots and pillars are among the most important sources for this period. This chapter shows how historians read these inscriptions, deal with their limitations, and combine them with literary and archaeological evidence to understand kingship, agrarian relations, urban life, and trade.
Summary
By the sixth century BCE, sixteen large states known as mahajanapadas had emerged in northern India. Most were monarchies, but some such as the Vajji confederacy were ganas or sanghas (oligarchies). Each had a fortified capital, a standing army and a system of taxation. Magadha rose to dominance between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE because of its fertile alluvial soil, iron mines, access to elephants, and ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and the Nandas. Its capitals — first Rajagaha (Rajgir) and later Pataliputra — were strategically located on river routes.
The Mauryan empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 321 BCE and reached its zenith under his grandson Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE). Ashoka is best known through his edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars across the subcontinent. These were written mostly in Prakrit using Brahmi script, in Kharosthi in the northwest, and in Greek and Aramaic in Afghanistan. Ashoka used inscriptions to communicate dhamma — a code of social conduct emphasising non-violence, respect for elders and tolerance.
For centuries Brahmi and Kharosthi were unreadable. James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company’s mint, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi in 1837–38, allowing scholars to identify “Piyadassi” of the inscriptions with King Ashoka. After the decline of the Mauryas, new powers rose: the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and Kushanas in the northwest, the Satavahanas in the Deccan, and the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the far south. The Kushana king Kanishka minted gold coins and presented himself as a divine ruler. From the fourth century CE the Gupta empire dominated northern India; the Prayaga prashasti by Harishena celebrates Samudragupta.
Agrarian society expanded through the use of iron ploughshares, transplantation of paddy, and irrigation by wells, tanks and canals. Land was held by individual households and sometimes by communities, and from the early centuries CE rulers began making land grants to brahmanas and religious institutions, recorded on copper plates. Punch-marked silver and copper coins, Indo-Greek gold coins, Kushana dinaras and Gupta gold issues reveal extensive trade — internal, with Central Asia, with the Roman world, and across the Bay of Bengal. Cities such as Mathura, Ujjayini, Puhar and Pataliputra were political capitals as well as craft and commercial centres. Historians use the Arthashastra, Buddhist and Jaina texts, Tamil Sangam literature, accounts by Megasthenes and Fa Xian, alongside inscriptions and coins, to reconstruct this period.
সাৰাংশ
খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্ব ষষ্ঠ শতিকাত উত্তৰ ভাৰতত ষোল্লটা ডাঙৰ ৰাজ্য বা মহাজনপদৰ উদয় হৈছিল। ইয়াৰে অধিকাংশ ৰাজতন্ত্ৰ আছিল আৰু কিছুমান (যেনে বজ্জী সংঘ) গণ-সংঘ আছিল। বিম্বিসাৰ, অজাতশত্ৰু আৰু নন্দ ৰাজবংশৰ অধীনত মগধই উৰ্বৰা মাটি, লোহা খনি আৰু হাতীৰ সম্পদৰ বাবে শক্তিশালী হৈ উঠিছিল। ৩২১ খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্বত চন্দ্ৰগুপ্ত মৌৰ্য্যই মৌৰ্য্য সাম্ৰাজ্য স্থাপন কৰে আৰু তেওঁৰ নাতি অশোকই (২৬৮–২৩২ খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্ব) ই সাম্ৰাজ্য সম্প্ৰসাৰিত কৰি ধৰ্ম (ধম্ম) প্ৰচাৰ কৰে। অশোকৰ শিলালিপিসমূহ প্ৰাকৃত ভাষাত ব্ৰাহ্মী আৰু খৰোষ্ঠী লিপিৰে লিখা হৈছিল।
১৮৩৭–৩৮ চনত জেমছ প্ৰিন্সেপই ব্ৰাহ্মী আৰু খৰোষ্ঠী লিপি পঢ়িবলৈ সক্ষম হোৱাৰ পিছত পণ্ডিতসকলে শিলালিপিৰ “পিয়দস্সি”ক ৰজা অশোক বুলি চিনাক্ত কৰে। মৌৰ্য্যৰ পিছত কুষাণ, শাতবাহন, চোল-চেৰা-পাণ্ড্য আৰু গুপ্ত ৰাজবংশই ক্ষমতা লয়। হৰিষেণ ৰচিত প্ৰয়াগ প্ৰশস্তিয়ে সমুদ্ৰগুপ্তৰ প্ৰশংসা কৰে। কৃষি সম্প্ৰসাৰণ, লোহাৰ লাঙল, ধান ৰোপণ, খাল-পুখুৰীৰ জলসিঞ্চন, আৰু ব্ৰাহ্মণ-মন্দিৰলৈ ভূমি দান (তামপত্ৰ) প্ৰচলন হয়। পঞ্চমাৰ্ক ৰূপৰ মুদ্ৰা, কুষাণৰ সোণৰ মুদ্ৰা আৰু গুপ্ত যুগৰ স্বৰ্ণমুদ্ৰাই ব্যাপক বাণিজ্যৰ সাক্ষ্য দিয়ে। মথুৰা, উজ্জয়িনী, পাটলিপুত্ৰ আদি নগৰে ৰাজনৈতিক, ধৰ্মীয় আৰু বাণিজ্যিক কেন্দ্ৰৰ ভূমিকা লৈছিল।
NCERT Textbook Questions and Answers
1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in early historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Answer: Early historic cities (c. 6th century BCE – 6th century CE) such as Mathura, Ujjayini, Pataliputra and Puhar were major centres of craft production. Excavations have yielded fine pottery known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), ornaments of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta, and a variety of tools, weapons and figurines. Inscriptions mention guilds (shrenis) of craftsmen — weavers, smiths, potters and carpenters — who organised production and donated to monasteries.
Harappan cities (c. 2600–1900 BCE) also produced beads, seals, pottery and metal goods, but the evidence is different in important ways: (i) Harappan crafts were largely standardised across the civilisation, while early historic crafts show greater regional variation; (ii) Harappans had specialised craft towns like Chanhudaro and Lothal, while early historic crafts were concentrated in larger, multifunctional cities; (iii) early historic sites yield coins and inscriptions documenting guilds and donations, evidence which is absent from Harappan sites because their script remains undeciphered; (iv) early historic crafts include iron, which Harappans did not use.
2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
Answer: The salient features of the mahajanapadas (c. 6th century BCE) were: (i) sixteen large states across northern India, including Magadha, Kosala, Vajji, Avanti and Gandhara; (ii) most were monarchies but some such as the Vajji and Malla were ganas or sanghas ruled by groups of chiefs; (iii) each had a fortified capital city such as Rajagaha, Shravasti, Champa or Vaishali; (iv) they maintained standing armies and bureaucracies; (v) they collected regular taxes — usually one-sixth of agricultural produce (bhaga), plus dues from craftsmen, herders, traders, hunters and gatherers; (vi) Brahmanas composed Dharmasutras laying down norms for rulers, who were expected to be Kshatriyas; (vii) raids on neighbours were considered legitimate sources of wealth.
3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Answer: Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people by combining many kinds of evidence. Inscriptions usually record the activities of kings and elites, so historians turn to: (i) literary sources such as the Jatakas and Panchatantra, which contain stories about peasants, artisans and traders; (ii) Buddhist and Jaina texts that mention donors, monks and laypeople; (iii) Tamil Sangam poetry describing chieftains, farmers and bards; (iv) accounts of foreign travellers such as Megasthenes and Fa Xian; (v) archaeological remains — house plans, pottery, ornaments, agricultural tools and skeletal evidence — that reveal everyday life. By cross-checking these sources, historians piece together a picture of agrarian relations, gender roles, family structure and the lives of working people.
4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?
Answer: The Sangam poem (Source 3) lists items presented to the Pandyan chief Cenkuttuvan: ivory, fragrant wood, honey, sandalwood, vermilion, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, coconuts, mangoes, sugarcane, flowers, areca nut, plantains, baby tigers, elephants, monkeys, bears, deer, civet cats, peacocks, musk deer and birds. The Prabhavati Gupta inscription (Source 8) lists products of village Danguna: grass, hides, charcoal, salt, mines, flowers and fruits, milk, supplies for armies passing through.
Similarities: Both lists include forest products (flowers, fruits, honey-related items), animal products and items from agriculture. Both reveal that rulers extracted resources from the people they controlled. Differences: The Pandyan list is exotic, luxurious and tribute-like — gifts brought from distant forests and tribes — reflecting a chiefly economy dependent on hunting, gathering and reciprocal gifts. The Danguna list is mundane and routine, reflecting a settled agrarian village economy where rulers granted away regular dues and obligations to a brahmana donee. The first reflects a chiefdom; the second reflects a developed bureaucratic kingdom with land grants.
5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Answer: Epigraphists face several problems: (i) inscriptions are sometimes faintly engraved, making letters hard to read; (ii) inscriptions are often damaged, broken or have missing letters; (iii) the meaning of certain words used long ago may be unclear or technical; (iv) it is not always certain in what sense a word was used; (v) thousands of inscriptions remain undeciphered, unpublished or untranslated; (vi) inscriptions usually present the perspective of the donor or king, not of ordinary people; (vii) routine activities such as agriculture and daily wages are rarely mentioned; (viii) what is “politically and religiously significant” to the inscriber may not give a complete picture of society. Hence inscriptional evidence has to be combined with texts, coins and archaeology.
6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Answer: The main features of Mauryan administration were: (i) five major political centres — the capital Pataliputra and provincial centres at Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri; (ii) a strong centralised government with the king at the top, assisted by ministers (mantriparishad); (iii) a vast bureaucracy of officials including mahamattas, rajukas and pradeshikas; (iv) a standing army of infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots, mentioned by Megasthenes; (v) an efficient system of communications by land and river, including roads and rest houses; (vi) regular taxation and a department of revenue; (vii) under Ashoka, the propagation of dhamma through edicts and the appointment of dhamma mahamattas.
Of these, the Ashokan inscriptions clearly reveal: the existence of provincial centres (special edicts at Tosali, Suvarnagiri, etc.); the role of mahamattas; communication across vast distances; and Ashoka’s concern for welfare, dhamma, non-violence and the appointment of dhamma mahamattas. The inscriptions are silent on military and revenue details, which we know mainly from the Arthashastra and Megasthenes.
7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Answer: D.C. Sircar’s statement is largely true. Inscriptions throw light on almost every aspect of ancient Indian life: (i) political history — names of kings, dynasties, conquests, administration (e.g. Ashokan edicts, Prayaga prashasti); (ii) economy — taxation, land grants, trade, guilds, coinage; (iii) society — caste, varna, family structure, status of women, donors and donees; (iv) religion — Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, donations to temples and stupas; (v) language and literature — Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil and other languages; (vi) art and architecture — temples, stupas, sculptures often bear inscriptions; (vii) geography — names of places, rivers, mountains.
However, inscriptions have limitations. They focus on the elite, on donors and on commemorative or celebratory events. They tell us little about the daily lives of ordinary people, women, slaves and the poor. Hence Sircar’s view, while broadly accurate, must be qualified — inscriptions are an extraordinarily rich source, but not the only one.
8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Answer: In the post-Mauryan period (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE) new notions of kingship developed, partly under the influence of foreign rulers and new religious ideas. (i) The Kushanas portrayed themselves as devaputra or “son of god” — a notion possibly borrowed from Chinese and West Asian models. Colossal statues of Kushana kings have been found at Mat (near Mathura) and Surkh Kotal, suggesting they sought godlike status. (ii) Kings issued gold coins with their portraits and divine symbols, asserting wealth and authority. (iii) The Satavahanas and other rulers performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule. (iv) The Guptas presented themselves as exemplary kings through prashastis (panegyrics) such as Harishena’s Prayaga prashasti, which described Samudragupta as equal to gods like Kubera, Varuna, Indra and Yama. Kingship was thus connected with divinity, military prowess, generosity (especially in land grants), and patronage of religion and learning.
9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
Answer: Agriculture was transformed in several ways: (i) the spread of iron-tipped ploughshares increased productivity, especially in the fertile alluvial Ganga valley; (ii) the introduction of paddy transplantation dramatically raised yields, though it required intensive labour; (iii) irrigation works such as wells, tanks, canals and Sudarshana lake (Saurashtra, repaired in Rudradaman’s time) became more elaborate; (iv) new lands were brought under cultivation as forests were cleared; (v) land grants to brahmanas and religious institutions, recorded on copper plates, encouraged agricultural expansion in peripheral areas; (vi) different rights over land emerged — the king’s, individual cultivators’, village communities’ — and revenue arrangements became more complex.
However, transformation was uneven. Plough agriculture spread to areas with adequate rainfall; in arid or hilly regions other techniques like hoe cultivation and pastoralism continued. Differences also grew between large landholders and landless labourers, as suggested by the Buddhist text Sutta Pitaka, which mentions gahapatis (large landowners) and dasa-karmakaras (slaves and wage workers).
Short Answer Questions
1. What is a mahajanapada?
Answer: A mahajanapada was one of the sixteen large states that emerged in northern India in the sixth century BCE, each with a fortified capital, an army and a system of taxation. Examples include Magadha, Kosala, Vajji and Gandhara.
2. Who was Ashoka?
Answer: Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) was the third Mauryan emperor and grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. He is famous for the Kalinga war, his adoption of Buddhism, and the inscriptions in which he propagated dhamma.
3. What is Brahmi?
Answer: Brahmi is the script in which most Ashokan inscriptions are written. It is the parent of most modern Indian scripts and was deciphered by James Prinsep in 1838.
4. What is Kharosthi?
Answer: Kharosthi is the script used in the northwest of the subcontinent, written from right to left. It was used in some Ashokan inscriptions and on Indo-Greek and early Kushana coins, and was deciphered by James Prinsep using bilingual coins.
5. Who deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi?
Answer: James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company’s mint, deciphered both scripts in 1837–38. This breakthrough enabled the identification of “Piyadassi” as Ashoka.
6. What is dhamma?
Answer: Dhamma was Ashoka’s code of social and ethical conduct, including non-violence, respect for elders, kindness to slaves and servants, religious tolerance, and concern for the welfare of all beings. It was propagated through his edicts and dhamma mahamattas.
7. What were punch-marked coins?
Answer: Punch-marked coins were the earliest coins of India, made of silver and copper and marked with symbols by punching. They circulated from about the sixth century BCE and were used by mahajanapadas and the Mauryas.
8. What is a prashasti?
Answer: A prashasti is a Sanskrit eulogy composed by court poets in praise of a king. The Prayaga prashasti of Samudragupta, composed by Harishena, is a famous example.
9. What is a land grant?
Answer: A land grant was a transfer of land, usually with rights to its produce, from a king to a brahmana, religious institution or official. Such grants were recorded on copper plates from the early centuries CE.
10. Who was Megasthenes?
Answer: Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His account, the Indica, survives only in fragments and provides an outsider’s view of Mauryan administration.
11. What was the Arthashastra?
Answer: The Arthashastra is a Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya), minister of Chandragupta Maurya. It deals with administration, economy, taxation, war and diplomacy.
12. What is meant by gana or sangha?
Answer: Gana or sangha referred to oligarchies in which power was shared among several rulers, sometimes called rajas. The Vajji confederacy under the Lichchhavis is a well-known example.
Long Answer Questions
1. Why did Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada?
Answer: Magadha rose to dominance between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE for several reasons. Geographical advantages: it lay in the fertile lower Ganga valley, with abundant rainfall and rich alluvial soil that supported intensive paddy cultivation. Mineral resources: iron mines near Rajgir provided raw material for tools and weapons, while elephants from the surrounding forests strengthened the army. Strategic capitals: Rajagaha (Rajgir) was protected by hills, while Pataliputra was situated at the junction of major rivers, controlling river-borne trade. Strong rulers: ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and the Nandas pursued aggressive expansion, conquering neighbours and absorbing them. Communications: the Ganga and its tributaries served as highways for trade and the movement of armies. Revenue: a fertile agrarian base produced large surpluses, enabling Magadha to maintain a standing army and bureaucracy. By the late fourth century BCE, the Nanda king Mahapadma controlled most of northern India, paving the way for the Maurya empire.
2. Describe the importance of Ashokan inscriptions.
Answer: Ashokan inscriptions are the most important sources for the Mauryan period and indeed for Indian political history before the Christian era. Distribution: they are found across the subcontinent — from Afghanistan in the northwest to Karnataka in the south, and from Gujarat to Odisha. Categories: they include Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts, Cave Inscriptions and bilingual texts. Languages and scripts: most are in Prakrit using Brahmi, but Kharosthi was used in the northwest and Greek and Aramaic at Kandahar. Content: they record Ashoka’s adoption of Buddhism after the Kalinga war, the principles of dhamma (non-violence, tolerance, respect for elders, care for animals), administrative reforms, the appointment of dhamma mahamattas, welfare measures like medical care and tree planting, and Ashoka’s view of himself as a paternal ruler. Significance: the inscriptions allow historians to map the extent of the empire, to understand royal communication, and after Prinsep’s decipherment, to identify “Piyadassi” with Ashoka. They also reveal personal voice — Ashoka’s expression of remorse over Kalinga is one of the most striking statements by any ancient ruler.
3. Examine the role of coins as a source of history.
Answer: Coins are an invaluable source for political and economic history. Political: coins bear the names, titles and portraits of rulers, helping reconstruct dynasties — Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, Satavahanas and Guptas are largely known through their coins. Bilingual Indo-Greek coins helped Prinsep decipher Kharosthi. Economic: the volume, metal and find-spots of coins indicate the scale of trade and monetisation. Punch-marked silver coins reveal the early commercial expansion of the mahajanapadas; Kushana gold coins reflect trade with Rome and Central Asia; Gupta dinaras suggest a flourishing internal economy. Religious and cultural: coin imagery includes deities (Lakshmi, Shiva, Buddha), animals, ritual objects, kings performing sacrifices, and royal symbols of legitimacy. Limitations: coin finds may be uneven; many coins remain unidentified; counterfeiting and reuse complicate dating; and coins reveal little about the lives of those who did not use them.
4. Describe the agrarian economy from c. 6th century BCE to 6th century CE.
Answer: Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. By the 6th century BCE iron-tipped ploughs and paddy transplantation had transformed the Ganga valley into a high-yielding zone. Wells, tanks, canals and reservoirs (e.g. Sudarshana lake) were built or repaired by the state and individuals. The principal grains were rice, wheat, barley, millets, pulses and oilseeds. Cattle, sheep, goats and oxen were essential for ploughing, milk and transport. Society was stratified: gahapatis (large landowners) employed wage labourers and slaves; small peasants cultivated their own plots; some land was held in common by villages. The state collected one-sixth of produce as bhaga, plus other dues. From the early centuries CE, kings made land grants to brahmanas and religious institutions, sometimes including villages with their inhabitants and the right to collect taxes. Such grants encouraged the spread of plough agriculture into peripheral regions and contributed to the formation of new agrarian zones, but also created social inequality between landed elites and tenants or labourers.
5. Discuss the urbanisation of the second urban phase.
Answer: The second urban phase began around the 6th century BCE in the Ganga valley, after the disappearance of Harappan cities a thousand years earlier. Major cities included Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Ujjayini, Mathura, Vidisha, Vaishali and Puhar. Features: most cities were political capitals; many were located on rivers or trade routes; they were enclosed by massive walls and ditches. Crafts and trade: cities specialised in pottery (NBPW), textiles, metalwork, stoneware, glass, ivory and ornaments; craftsmen and merchants organised themselves into guilds (shrenis). Coins: the introduction of punch-marked silver and copper coins facilitated commerce. Society: cities housed kings, officials, priests, merchants (setthis), artisans, labourers, monks, courtesans and slaves. Religion: stupas, monasteries, temples and viharas were patronised by royal and merchant donors. External links: ports such as Bharuch, Sopara and Tamralipti connected India to Rome and Southeast Asia. The second urbanisation laid the foundation of the medieval Indian urban tradition.
6. Describe the contribution of James Prinsep to the study of Indian history.
Answer: James Prinsep (1799–1840) was an officer of the East India Company’s mint at Banaras and Calcutta and one of the founders of Indian epigraphy. In 1837–38 he deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, working with bilingual Indo-Greek coins for Kharosthi and applying systematic comparison for Brahmi. His decipherment opened up the world of ancient Indian inscriptions: scholars could now read Ashokan edicts and identify the king “Piyadassi” with Ashoka mentioned in Buddhist tradition. Prinsep’s work established the chronology of early Indian dynasties, made it possible to read the names of kings on coins, and laid the groundwork for the modern reconstruction of pre-Christian Indian history. As editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, he encouraged systematic recording and publication of inscriptions, an effort continued by later scholars such as Cunningham, Bühler, Hultzsch and D.C. Sircar.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The sixteen large states of the 6th century BCE are known as:
(a) Janapadas (b) Mahajanapadas (c) Rashtras (d) Kingdoms
Answer: (b) Mahajanapadas
2. Which of the following was NOT a mahajanapada?
(a) Magadha (b) Kosala (c) Vajji (d) Vijayanagara
Answer: (d) Vijayanagara
3. The capital of Magadha during the early Mauryan period was:
(a) Rajagriha (b) Vaishali (c) Pataliputra (d) Ujjayini
Answer: (c) Pataliputra
4. The founder of the Maurya empire was:
(a) Ashoka (b) Bindusara (c) Chandragupta Maurya (d) Bimbisara
Answer: (c) Chandragupta Maurya
5. Ashoka belonged to which dynasty?
(a) Gupta (b) Maurya (c) Shunga (d) Kushana
Answer: (b) Maurya
6. The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya’s court was:
(a) Megasthenes (b) Fa Xian (c) Hiuen Tsang (d) Strabo
Answer: (a) Megasthenes
7. The Arthashastra is attributed to:
(a) Kalidasa (b) Kautilya (c) Panini (d) Patanjali
Answer: (b) Kautilya
8. Most Ashokan inscriptions were written in:
(a) Sanskrit (b) Tamil (c) Prakrit (d) Pali
Answer: (c) Prakrit
9. The script in which most Ashokan inscriptions are written is:
(a) Brahmi (b) Kharosthi (c) Devanagari (d) Greek
Answer: (a) Brahmi
10. Kharosthi script was used mainly in:
(a) South India (b) Northwest India (c) Bengal (d) Deccan
Answer: (b) Northwest India
11. James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in:
(a) 1828 (b) 1838 (c) 1857 (d) 1875
Answer: (b) 1838
12. “Piyadassi” mentioned in inscriptions refers to:
(a) Chandragupta (b) Bindusara (c) Ashoka (d) Kanishka
Answer: (c) Ashoka
13. The Prayaga prashasti was composed by:
(a) Harishena (b) Banabhatta (c) Kalidasa (d) Vishakhadatta
Answer: (a) Harishena
14. The Prayaga prashasti praises which king?
(a) Chandragupta II (b) Samudragupta (c) Skandagupta (d) Kumaragupta
Answer: (b) Samudragupta
15. The Kushana king who minted gold coins and called himself “devaputra” was:
(a) Kujula Kadphises (b) Vima Kadphises (c) Kanishka (d) Vasudeva
Answer: (c) Kanishka
16. The earliest coins of India are known as:
(a) Dinaras (b) Punch-marked coins (c) Karshapanas (d) Tankas
Answer: (b) Punch-marked coins
17. The Sudarshana lake mentioned in the Junagadh inscription was repaired during the reign of:
(a) Ashoka (b) Rudradaman (c) Samudragupta (d) Harshavardhana
Answer: (b) Rudradaman
18. Land grants from the early centuries CE were typically recorded on:
(a) Palm leaves (b) Birch bark (c) Copper plates (d) Stone slabs
Answer: (c) Copper plates
19. The fine pottery associated with early historic cities is:
(a) Painted Grey Ware (b) Northern Black Polished Ware (c) Red and Black Ware (d) Black-and-Red Ware
Answer: (b) Northern Black Polished Ware
20. The Vajji confederacy was an example of a:
(a) Monarchy (b) Theocracy (c) Gana-sangha (oligarchy) (d) Empire
Answer: (c) Gana-sangha (oligarchy)
21. The five major political centres of the Mauryan empire included Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and:
(a) Suvarnagiri (b) Mathura (c) Kaushambi (d) Bharuch
Answer: (a) Suvarnagiri
22. Officials appointed by Ashoka to spread dhamma were called:
(a) Rajukas (b) Mahamattas (c) Dhamma mahamattas (d) Pradeshikas
Answer: (c) Dhamma mahamattas
23. The Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the Gupta period was:
(a) Hiuen Tsang (b) Fa Xian (c) I-tsing (d) Megasthenes
Answer: (b) Fa Xian
24. The Satavahanas ruled mainly in:
(a) Bengal (b) Punjab (c) Deccan (d) Tamil Nadu
Answer: (c) Deccan
25. Tax of one-sixth of agricultural produce paid to the king was called:
(a) Bhaga (b) Bali (c) Kara (d) Hiranya
Answer: (a) Bhaga
Major Dynasties (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)
| Dynasty | Period (approx.) | Region | Famous Rulers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Haryanka | c. 544–412 BCE | Magadha | Bimbisara, Ajatashatru |
| Nanda | c. 345–321 BCE | Magadha / North India | Mahapadma Nanda, Dhana Nanda |
| Maurya | c. 321–185 BCE | Most of subcontinent | Chandragupta, Bindusara, Ashoka |
| Shunga | c. 185–73 BCE | North India | Pushyamitra Shunga |
| Indo-Greek | c. 200 BCE – 10 CE | Northwest | Demetrius, Menander |
| Shaka / Shaka-Kshatrapa | c. 1st BCE – 4th CE | Northwest, Western India | Rudradaman |
| Satavahana | c. 2nd BCE – 3rd CE | Deccan | Gautamiputra Satakarni |
| Kushana | c. 1st – 3rd CE | Northwest, North India, Central Asia | Kujula Kadphises, Kanishka |
| Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas | c. 3rd BCE – 3rd CE (Sangam age) | Tamilakam (Far South) | Karikala (Chola), Senguttuvan (Chera) |
| Gupta | c. 320 – 550 CE | North India | Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II |
| Vakataka | c. 3rd – 5th CE | Deccan | Pravarasena, Prabhavati Gupta |
Key Terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Mahajanapada | One of the sixteen large states of the 6th century BCE |
| Gana / Sangha | An oligarchy where power is shared among several rulers |
| Bhaga | Tax of one-sixth of agricultural produce paid to the king |
| Bali | An additional tax or contribution paid to the king |
| Gahapati | A large landowner / head of household |
| Dasa-karmakara | Slaves and wage labourers mentioned in Buddhist texts |
| Shreni | A guild of craftsmen or merchants |
| Prashasti | A Sanskrit panegyric in praise of a king |
| Edict | An official proclamation of a ruler, especially of Ashoka |
| Dhamma | Ashoka’s code of social and moral conduct |
| Dhamma mahamatta | An official appointed by Ashoka to spread dhamma |
| Brahmi | Script of most Ashokan inscriptions, parent of modern Indian scripts |
| Kharosthi | Script of the northwest, written right to left |
| Punch-marked coin | Earliest Indian coins, made by stamping symbols on metal |
| Dinara | Gold coin of the Kushanas and Guptas |
| Land grant | Transfer of land by a king to a brahmana or institution, recorded on copper plates |
| Devaputra | “Son of god” — title used by Kushana kings |
| NBPW | Northern Black Polished Ware, fine pottery of early historic cities |
| Arthashastra | Sanskrit treatise on statecraft attributed to Kautilya |
| Indica | Account of India written by Megasthenes |