Class 12 Education Chapter 4 — Learning
Welcome to HSLC Guru. This page presents complete ASSEB Class 12 Education (English Medium) Chapter 4 — Learning — question answers. Designed for HS Second Year students preparing for the AHSEC / ASSEB final examination, the chapter covers the meaning, characteristics and types of learning, the difference between maturation and learning, factors influencing learning, the major learning theories (Trial and Error, Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Insightful Learning), transfer of learning, the learning curve, and educational implications.
About the Chapter
Learning is one of the central concepts of educational psychology. It is the process by which an individual modifies behaviour, acquires knowledge, develops skills, attitudes and habits through experience, training and interaction with the environment. This chapter explains how learning takes place, what conditions favour or hinder it, and how teachers can apply psychological theories of learning in classroom practice.
Summary
Meaning of Learning: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about through experience, practice or training. According to Woodworth, “Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from what they would otherwise have been.” Skinner defined learning as “a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” Gates described it as “the modification of behaviour through experience and training.”
Characteristics of Learning: (1) Learning is a process of change in behaviour. (2) It is purposive and goal-directed. (3) It is universal and continuous, taking place throughout life. (4) It results from experience and practice. (5) It is relatively permanent — momentary changes due to fatigue or drugs are not learning. (6) It is an active process involving the whole organism — cognitive, affective and conative aspects. (7) It is adaptive and helps the individual adjust to the environment. (8) It is transferable from one situation to another. (9) It is individual — different learners learn at different rates.
Types of Learning: Common categorisations include — Motor learning (riding a cycle, swimming), Verbal learning (language, poetry), Concept learning (categories and ideas), Discrimination learning (telling similar stimuli apart), Problem-solving learning (using reasoning), Attitude learning (developing dispositions), and Skill learning (typing, playing instruments). Gagne identified eight hierarchical types — signal, stimulus-response, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept, principle and problem-solving learning.
Maturation vs Learning: Maturation is the natural unfolding of innate potentialities with age and is independent of practice or experience, whereas learning is acquired through experience, training and effort. Maturation provides the readiness — the biological foundation — on which learning is built. A child cannot learn to walk before the muscles and nerves mature; equally, no amount of maturation alone produces reading or writing without learning. The two work together throughout development.
Factors Influencing Learning: (1) Personal factors — physical and mental health, intelligence, age, maturation, motivation, interest, attention, attitude, aptitude, fatigue and emotional state. (2) Environmental factors — light, ventilation, noise, classroom climate, family background, peer group, socio-economic status. (3) Method factors — teaching method, learning material, time of practice, distribution of practice (massed vs spaced), reinforcement, feedback and use of teaching aids. (4) Subject-matter factors — meaningfulness, length, difficulty and organisation of the content.
Theories of Learning — Trial and Error (Edward L. Thorndike): Thorndike’s classical experiment placed a hungry cat inside a “puzzle box” with food kept outside. The cat made many random movements — clawing, biting, jumping — until it accidentally pressed the lever and escaped. With repeated trials the wrong responses gradually disappeared and the correct response was made more quickly. Thorndike concluded that learning is essentially a process of selecting and connecting; he framed three primary laws — Law of Readiness (when the organism is ready to act, acting is satisfying; preventing it is annoying), Law of Exercise (the strength of an S-R bond depends on its use and disuse — practice strengthens, disuse weakens) and Law of Effect (responses followed by satisfaction are stamped in, those followed by discomfort are stamped out). Subsidiary laws include multiple response, attitude or set, partial activity, analogy and associative shifting.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan P. Pavlov): The Russian physiologist showed that a neutral stimulus, when repeatedly paired with a natural (unconditioned) stimulus, comes to evoke the same response. In his experiment, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, UCS) produced salivation (Unconditioned Response, UCR) in a dog. A bell (Neutral Stimulus) was rung just before food was presented. After several pairings, the bell alone (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) evoked salivation (Conditioned Response, CR). Pavlov also described acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation and discrimination.
Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner): Skinner placed a hungry rat in a specially designed “Skinner Box” containing a lever; pressing it released a food pellet. The rat eventually learned to press the lever to obtain food. Skinner argued that behaviour is shaped by its consequences — responses followed by reinforcement are repeated, those followed by punishment or no reinforcement weaken. He distinguished positive reinforcement (adding a pleasant stimulus), negative reinforcement (removing an unpleasant stimulus), positive punishment and negative punishment, and described schedules of reinforcement (fixed/variable, ratio/interval). Operant conditioning underlies programmed instruction and behaviour modification.
Insightful Learning (Wolfgang Köhler): The Gestalt psychologist Köhler experimented with chimpanzees, the most famous being Sultan. A banana was placed outside the cage beyond reach, and two short sticks that could be joined to make a long stick were kept inside. After unsuccessful attempts the chimp suddenly fitted the sticks together and pulled the banana in. Köhler called this “aha!” moment insight — a sudden perception of relationships among elements of a problem. Insightful learning is characterised by sudden solution, perception of the whole situation, smooth transfer to similar problems and retention.
Transfer of Learning: Transfer is the influence of previous learning on new learning. (a) Positive transfer — earlier learning helps the new task (knowing arithmetic helps in algebra). (b) Negative transfer — previous learning hinders new learning (driving on the left can interfere when driving on the right). (c) Zero transfer — no influence. Theories include the Theory of Mental Discipline (Faculty Theory), Theory of Identical Elements (Thorndike), Theory of Generalisation (Judd), and the Theory of Transposition / Configuration (Gestalt). Teachers should plan lessons to maximise positive transfer through meaningful learning, principles, generalisation and varied practice.
Learning Curve: A learning curve is a graphical representation showing the progress of learning against time or trials. Its main forms are — (1) Negatively accelerated curve — rapid early progress that slows down as mastery is approached; (2) Positively accelerated curve — slow start with later acceleration; (3) S-shaped or sigmoid curve — slow start, rapid middle, slow end; (4) Plateau — a temporary period of no apparent improvement caused by fatigue, loss of interest, faulty method or shift to a higher-level skill. Plateaus can usually be overcome by rest, motivation, better methods and feedback.
Educational Implications: Teachers should ensure readiness before teaching, provide adequate practice with reinforcement, give immediate feedback, distribute practice over time, use varied methods, encourage problem-solving and insight, motivate through success and praise, link new learning with prior knowledge to enhance transfer, and adapt instruction to individual differences. Understanding learning curves helps teachers recognise plateaus and intervene rather than blame the learner.
সাৰাংশ
শিক্ষণ (Learning) হৈছে অভিজ্ঞতা, অনুশীলন আৰু প্ৰশিক্ষণৰ যোগেদি ব্যক্তিৰ আচৰণত হোৱা তুলনামূলকভাৱে স্থায়ী পৰিৱৰ্তন। ইয়াৰ মুখ্য বৈশিষ্ট্যসমূহ হ’ল — উদ্দেশ্যপ্ৰণোদিত, সৰ্বজনীন, নিৰন্তৰ, অভিজ্ঞতাৰ ফল, সক্ৰিয় আৰু অভিযোজনমূলক। শিক্ষণৰ প্ৰকাৰৰ ভিতৰত আছে গাত্ৰিক, বাচনিক, ধাৰণাগত, বৈষম্যমূলক, সমস্যা সমাধান, মনোভাৱ আৰু কৌশল শিক্ষণ। পৰিপক্কতা (Maturation) আৰু শিক্ষণ পৃথক — পৰিপক্কতা স্বাভাৱিক বিকাশ, শিক্ষণ অভিজ্ঞতাৰ ফল; দুয়োটাই একেলগে কাম কৰে। শিক্ষণক প্ৰভাৱিত কৰা উপাদানসমূহ ব্যক্তিগত, পৰিৱেশগত, পদ্ধতিগত আৰু বিষয়বস্তুগত। শিক্ষণৰ মুখ্য তত্ত্বসমূহ — থৰ্ণডাইকৰ চেষ্টা-আৰু-ভ্ৰান্তি (প্ৰস্তুতি, অনুশীলন, ফলাফলৰ নিয়ম), পেভলভৰ চিৰাচৰিত প্ৰতিবৰ্তন (কুকুৰ, ঘণ্টা আৰু খাদ্য), স্কিনাৰৰ ক্ৰিয়াগত প্ৰতিবৰ্তন (Skinner Box, ইন্দুৰ, প্ৰবৰ্ধন) আৰু কোলাৰৰ অন্তৰ্দৃষ্টিমূলক শিক্ষণ (চিম্পেঞ্জী Sultan)। শিক্ষণৰ স্থানান্তৰ ধনাত্মক, ঋণাত্মক বা শূন্য হ’ব পাৰে। শিক্ষণ-বক্ৰৰে শিক্ষণৰ গতি প্ৰদৰ্শিত হয় আৰু মালভূমি অৱস্থাও দেখা যায়। শিক্ষকে এই তত্ত্বসমূহৰ শৈক্ষিক প্ৰয়োগ — প্ৰস্তুতি, অনুশীলন, প্ৰবৰ্ধন, প্ৰেৰণা আৰু ব্যক্তিগত পাৰ্থক্যৰ স্বীকৃতি — শ্ৰেণীকোঠাত প্ৰয়োগ কৰিব লাগে।
Question and Answers
1. What is learning?
Answer: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience, practice or training. It is a continuous, purposive, adaptive process through which an individual acquires new knowledge, skills, attitudes, habits and ways of responding to situations.
2. Define learning according to Skinner and Gates.
Answer: According to B. F. Skinner, “Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.” Arthur I. Gates defined learning as “the modification of behaviour through experience and training.”
3. Mention any four characteristics of learning.
Answer: (i) Learning is a process of change in behaviour. (ii) It is purposive and goal-directed. (iii) It is universal and continuous throughout life. (iv) It is the result of experience, practice and training and is relatively permanent.
4. What are the main types of learning?
Answer: The main types are motor learning, verbal learning, concept learning, discrimination learning, problem-solving learning, attitude learning and skill learning. Gagne further classified them into eight hierarchical types — signal, S-R, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept, principle and problem-solving learning.
5. Distinguish between maturation and learning.
Answer: Maturation is the natural development of innate capacities with age and does not depend on practice; learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through experience and effort. Maturation is biological, learning is psychological. Maturation provides readiness; learning utilises that readiness. Both are interdependent and complementary in human development.
6. State the factors influencing learning.
Answer: Factors influencing learning are grouped under — (a) Personal factors: health, intelligence, age, maturation, motivation, interest, attention and emotional state; (b) Environmental factors: light, ventilation, noise, classroom climate, family and peer group; (c) Method factors: teaching method, distribution of practice, reinforcement and feedback; (d) Subject-matter factors: meaningfulness, difficulty and organisation of the content.
7. Explain Thorndike’s Trial and Error theory of learning.
Answer: Edward L. Thorndike placed a hungry cat inside a puzzle box with food outside. The cat performed many random movements — biting, clawing, jumping — until it accidentally pulled the latch and escaped to eat. With successive trials the unsuccessful responses dropped out and the correct response appeared more quickly. Thorndike concluded that learning is the gradual stamping-in of correct responses and stamping-out of wrong ones through trial and error. He proposed three primary laws — Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise and Law of Effect — and several subsidiary laws (multiple response, attitude, partial activity, analogy, associative shifting).
8. Explain Thorndike’s three primary laws of learning.
Answer: (i) Law of Readiness — when the learner is mentally and physically prepared to act, acting brings satisfaction; if forced to act when not ready, or prevented when ready, annoyance results. (ii) Law of Exercise — the strength of an S-R bond depends on use (Law of Use) and weakens through disuse (Law of Disuse). Practice strengthens learning. (iii) Law of Effect — a response followed by a satisfying state of affairs is strengthened, while one followed by an annoying state is weakened.
9. Describe Pavlov’s experiment on Classical Conditioning.
Answer: Ivan P. Pavlov observed that food (UCS) naturally caused salivation (UCR) in a dog. He rang a bell (neutral stimulus) just before presenting food, and repeated this pairing many times. After conditioning, the bell alone — now the Conditioned Stimulus — produced salivation, the Conditioned Response. The experiment demonstrated that a previously neutral stimulus can acquire the power of an unconditioned stimulus through repeated association. Pavlov also identified acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation and discrimination.
10. Explain Skinner’s theory of Operant Conditioning.
Answer: B. F. Skinner placed a hungry rat in a specially designed apparatus called the Skinner Box. The box contained a lever; pressing it delivered a food pellet. The rat moved randomly at first, but on accidentally pressing the lever and getting food, it gradually learned to press the lever whenever hungry. Skinner concluded that behaviour is governed by its consequences — reinforced responses are repeated. He distinguished positive and negative reinforcement and various schedules of reinforcement (continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval). Operant conditioning is the basis of programmed instruction, behaviour modification and reward-based teaching.
11. Describe Köhler’s experiment on Insightful Learning.
Answer: Wolfgang Köhler, a Gestalt psychologist, experimented on chimpanzees. In his most famous experiment with the chimpanzee Sultan, a banana was kept outside the cage out of reach. Inside the cage were two short sticks, neither of which alone could reach the fruit, but which could be joined to form one longer stick. After several unsuccessful attempts and a period of apparent inactivity, Sultan suddenly fitted the two sticks together and pulled in the banana. Köhler called this sudden grasping of relationships insight. Characteristics of insightful learning are sudden solution, perception of the whole situation, smooth performance and easy transfer to similar problems.
12. What is transfer of learning? State its types.
Answer: Transfer of learning is the influence of previous learning on the learning of a new task. Its three types are — (i) Positive transfer — when prior learning helps the new learning, e.g., knowledge of Sanskrit helps learning Hindi; (ii) Negative transfer — when prior learning hinders new learning, e.g., habit of driving on the left interferes when driving on the right; (iii) Zero transfer — when prior learning has no influence on new learning.
13. What is a learning curve? Mention its types.
Answer: A learning curve is a graphical representation of the progress of learning plotted against time or number of trials. The main types are — (i) Negatively accelerated curve (rapid initial gains, slowing later); (ii) Positively accelerated curve (slow start, faster later); (iii) S-shaped or sigmoid curve (slow-fast-slow); (iv) Plateau — a temporary halt in observable progress.
14. What is a plateau in the learning curve? How can it be removed?
Answer: A plateau is a flat portion of the learning curve indicating a temporary period of no apparent improvement. It is caused by fatigue, loss of motivation, faulty methods, lack of feedback or transition to a higher-level skill. It can usually be removed by giving rest, increasing motivation, providing feedback, changing the method, distributing practice and ensuring physical and mental fitness.
15. State the educational implications of theories of learning.
Answer: Theories of learning guide teachers to — ensure readiness before instruction (Law of Readiness); provide adequate, well-distributed practice (Law of Exercise); reinforce correct responses with praise and rewards (Law of Effect, operant conditioning); use association and conditioning to develop good habits and attitudes (classical conditioning); encourage problem-solving and insight rather than mere memorisation (Gestalt theory); link new learning with prior knowledge to maximise positive transfer; adapt teaching to individual differences; and recognise plateaus as natural and intervene constructively.
Short Type Questions
1. Who proposed the Trial and Error theory of learning?
Answer: Edward Lee Thorndike.
2. On which animal did Thorndike conduct his classic experiment?
Answer: A hungry cat placed inside a puzzle box.
3. Who is the propounder of Classical Conditioning?
Answer: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.
4. What animal did Pavlov use in his experiment?
Answer: A dog.
5. Who developed Operant Conditioning?
Answer: Burrhus Frederic Skinner.
6. Name the apparatus used by Skinner.
Answer: The Skinner Box.
7. Who is the founder of Insightful Learning?
Answer: Wolfgang Köhler, a Gestalt psychologist.
8. Name the chimpanzee in Köhler’s famous experiment.
Answer: Sultan.
9. What is UCS in classical conditioning?
Answer: UCS — Unconditioned Stimulus — a stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning (e.g., food causing salivation).
10. What is positive transfer of learning?
Answer: Positive transfer takes place when previous learning facilitates new learning, e.g., learning arithmetic helps in learning algebra.
11. State the Law of Effect.
Answer: A response followed by a satisfying consequence is strengthened, while one followed by an annoying consequence is weakened.
12. What is reinforcement?
Answer: Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the probability of a response being repeated; it may be positive (adding a pleasant stimulus) or negative (removing an unpleasant one).
Long Type Questions
1. Define learning. Discuss its main characteristics.
Answer: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about through experience, practice or training. Skinner described it as “a process of progressive behaviour adaptation,” and Gates as “the modification of behaviour through experience.” Its characteristics are: (i) it is a process, not a product; (ii) it produces a change in behaviour; (iii) it is purposive and goal-directed; (iv) it is universal and continuous, taking place from birth to death; (v) it is the result of experience and practice; (vi) it is relatively permanent; (vii) it is active and involves the whole personality; (viii) it is adaptive and helps adjustment; (ix) it is transferable; (x) it is individual — rate, style and outcome vary across learners.
2. Explain Thorndike’s Trial and Error theory and discuss its educational implications.
Answer: Thorndike’s experiment with a hungry cat in a puzzle box demonstrated that learning takes place through repeated trials, gradual elimination of incorrect responses and the strengthening of correct ones. He framed the Laws of Readiness, Exercise and Effect, supplemented by laws of multiple response, attitude, partial activity, analogy and associative shifting. Educational implications: (a) ensure mental and physical readiness before teaching; (b) provide opportunities for repeated practice (Law of Exercise); (c) reinforce correct responses with praise and rewards (Law of Effect); (d) avoid punishment that brings annoyance; (e) move from simple to complex; (f) make use of motivation and goals; (g) encourage learning by doing rather than passive reception; (h) provide feedback so that the learner can correct errors.
3. Describe Pavlov’s experiment on classical conditioning and explain its educational implications.
Answer: Pavlov demonstrated that pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) repeatedly leads the neutral stimulus to acquire the capacity to elicit the response (salivation) by itself. The bell becomes the Conditioned Stimulus and salivation to the bell the Conditioned Response. He also identified acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation and discrimination. Educational implications: (a) the school environment should be made pleasant so that pleasant emotional responses get conditioned to learning; (b) good habits, attitudes and prejudices can be formed through deliberate association; (c) bad habits and fears can be unlearned through extinction or counter-conditioning; (d) discipline can be developed through consistent association of cues with desired behaviour; (e) the teacher’s personality and tone become conditioned stimuli that influence the pupil’s attitude towards the subject.
4. Discuss Skinner’s Operant Conditioning theory and its application in teaching.
Answer: Skinner’s theory holds that behaviour is shaped by its consequences — responses followed by reinforcement are strengthened. Using the Skinner Box, he demonstrated how a rat learned to press a lever for food. Reinforcement may be positive or negative, and is delivered on various schedules (continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval). Application in teaching: (a) the use of immediate praise, marks, stars and rewards to reinforce correct responses; (b) programmed instruction and teaching machines that present material in small steps with immediate feedback; (c) shaping new behaviour through successive approximations; (d) behaviour modification techniques to deal with classroom indiscipline; (e) computer-assisted instruction; (f) avoidance of punishment and use of extinction for unwanted behaviour.
5. Explain Köhler’s theory of Insightful Learning with educational implications.
Answer: Köhler’s experiments with chimpanzees, especially Sultan, showed that learning can occur through a sudden perception of relationships among the elements of a problem — insight — rather than through blind trial and error. Insightful learning is characterised by sudden solution, perception of the whole, smooth execution and easy transfer. Educational implications: (a) teach concepts as wholes rather than isolated parts; (b) present material in a way that highlights relationships and patterns; (c) encourage problem-solving, reasoning and discovery learning; (d) provide adequate background knowledge so that the learner can perceive relationships; (e) avoid mechanical drill that does not promote understanding; (f) use heuristic and project methods that develop insight; (g) the teacher should pose meaningful problems and allow time for incubation.
6. Discuss the factors that influence learning.
Answer: The major factors influencing learning are: (a) Personal factors — physical and mental health, intelligence, age and maturation, motivation, interest, attention, attitude, aptitude, fatigue and emotional state; (b) Environmental factors — light, ventilation, noise, classroom climate, family background, peer group and socio-economic status; (c) Method factors — teaching method, instructional material, time of practice, distribution of practice (massed vs spaced), reinforcement, knowledge of results and use of teaching aids; (d) Subject-matter factors — meaningfulness, length, difficulty and organisation of the material. Effective learning takes place when these factors are favourable. The teacher’s task is to maximise positive factors and minimise negative ones.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Learning is a relatively permanent change in —
(a) Maturation (b) Behaviour (c) Reflex (d) Heredity
Answer: (b) Behaviour.
2. Who said, “Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation”?
(a) Skinner (b) Gates (c) Pavlov (d) Köhler
Answer: (a) Skinner.
3. The Trial and Error theory was given by —
(a) Pavlov (b) Skinner (c) Thorndike (d) Köhler
Answer: (c) Thorndike.
4. Thorndike used which animal in his experiment?
(a) Dog (b) Rat (c) Cat (d) Chimpanzee
Answer: (c) Cat.
5. Which is NOT one of Thorndike’s primary laws of learning?
(a) Law of Readiness (b) Law of Exercise (c) Law of Effect (d) Law of Insight
Answer: (d) Law of Insight.
6. Classical Conditioning is associated with —
(a) Skinner (b) Pavlov (c) Watson (d) Köhler
Answer: (b) Pavlov.
7. In Pavlov’s experiment, food acted as —
(a) Conditioned Stimulus (b) Unconditioned Stimulus (c) Conditioned Response (d) Neutral Stimulus
Answer: (b) Unconditioned Stimulus.
8. After conditioning, the bell becomes a —
(a) UCS (b) UCR (c) CS (d) NS
Answer: (c) CS — Conditioned Stimulus.
9. The Skinner Box was developed by —
(a) Pavlov (b) Skinner (c) Thorndike (d) Watson
Answer: (b) Skinner.
10. Operant conditioning is mainly concerned with —
(a) Reflex action (b) Consequences of behaviour (c) Insight (d) Maturation
Answer: (b) Consequences of behaviour.
11. Insightful learning was propounded by —
(a) Thorndike (b) Pavlov (c) Köhler (d) Skinner
Answer: (c) Köhler.
12. The famous chimpanzee used by Köhler was named —
(a) Albert (b) Sultan (c) Anna (d) Bobo
Answer: (b) Sultan.
13. Köhler belonged to which school of psychology?
(a) Behaviourism (b) Psychoanalysis (c) Gestalt (d) Functionalism
Answer: (c) Gestalt.
14. Which is NOT a type of learning?
(a) Motor (b) Verbal (c) Concept (d) Reflex
Answer: (d) Reflex (a reflex is innate, not learned).
15. Maturation depends on —
(a) Practice (b) Heredity and age (c) Reinforcement (d) Insight
Answer: (b) Heredity and age.
16. Negative transfer of learning means —
(a) Old learning helps new (b) Old learning hinders new (c) No effect (d) Forgetting
Answer: (b) Old learning hinders new learning.
17. The Theory of Identical Elements of transfer was given by —
(a) Judd (b) Thorndike (c) Köhler (d) Skinner
Answer: (b) Thorndike.
18. The Generalisation theory of transfer was given by —
(a) Thorndike (b) Judd (c) Pavlov (d) Watson
Answer: (b) Judd.
19. A plateau in the learning curve indicates —
(a) Steady improvement (b) Temporary halt in progress (c) Complete forgetting (d) Decline in IQ
Answer: (b) Temporary halt in progress.
20. The “aha experience” is associated with —
(a) Trial and Error (b) Operant Conditioning (c) Insightful Learning (d) Classical Conditioning
Answer: (c) Insightful Learning.
21. Programmed instruction is based on —
(a) Pavlov’s theory (b) Thorndike’s theory (c) Skinner’s theory (d) Köhler’s theory
Answer: (c) Skinner’s theory.
22. The Law of Exercise has two parts — Law of Use and —
(a) Law of Reward (b) Law of Disuse (c) Law of Set (d) Law of Effect
Answer: (b) Law of Disuse.
23. Pavlov was a —
(a) German psychiatrist (b) American psychologist (c) Russian physiologist (d) British educator
Answer: (c) Russian physiologist.
24. Which of the following is an example of motor learning?
(a) Memorising a poem (b) Riding a bicycle (c) Solving a problem (d) Forming an attitude
Answer: (b) Riding a bicycle.
25. According to Gestalt psychologists, learning is —
(a) Mechanical (b) Reflexive (c) Insightful and whole (d) Random
Answer: (c) Insightful and whole.
Comparison of Learning Theories
| Theory | Propounder | Subject of Experiment | Key Concept | Educational Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trial and Error | E. L. Thorndike | Hungry cat in puzzle box | Stamping in correct response by repeated trials; Laws of Readiness, Exercise, Effect | Drill, practice, reward, readiness, motivation |
| Classical Conditioning | I. P. Pavlov | Dog with food and bell | Pairing of neutral stimulus with UCS to elicit CR | Habit formation, attitude development, fear removal |
| Operant Conditioning | B. F. Skinner | Rat in Skinner Box | Behaviour shaped by reinforcement and consequences | Programmed instruction, behaviour modification, rewards |
| Insightful Learning | W. Köhler | Chimpanzee Sultan with sticks and bananas | Sudden grasp of relationships — “aha experience” | Problem-solving, discovery method, meaningful learning |
Key Terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Learning | Relatively permanent change in behaviour through experience and practice |
| Maturation | Natural unfolding of innate capacities with age, independent of practice |
| Readiness | State of being mentally and physically prepared to learn |
| Reinforcement | Any consequence that strengthens a response |
| Positive Reinforcement | Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a response |
| Negative Reinforcement | Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a response |
| UCS | Unconditioned Stimulus — naturally elicits a response |
| UCR | Unconditioned Response — natural response to UCS |
| CS | Conditioned Stimulus — previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the power to elicit response |
| CR | Conditioned Response — learned response to a CS |
| Extinction | Gradual disappearance of a CR when CS is presented without UCS |
| Generalisation | Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS |
| Discrimination | Ability to respond differently to different stimuli |
| Insight | Sudden perception of relationships among elements of a problem |
| Transfer of Learning | Influence of previous learning on new learning |
| Learning Curve | Graphical representation of progress in learning over time/trials |
| Plateau | Flat portion of a learning curve indicating temporary lack of progress |
| Skinner Box | Experimental apparatus used in operant conditioning |
| Puzzle Box | Apparatus used by Thorndike in trial-and-error experiments with cats |
| Gestalt | School of psychology emphasising perception of wholes rather than parts |