Biotechnology and its Applications
Welcome to HSLC Guru! In this lesson we explore Class 12 Biology Chapter 12 — Biotechnology and its Applications for the ASSEB Class 12 syllabus. Biotechnology has changed agriculture, medicine, industry, and environmental management. From recombinant insulin that saves diabetic patients to Bt cotton that resists pests and golden rice that fights vitamin A deficiency, the applications of recombinant DNA technology are everywhere. This English medium chapter-wise resource gives you a clean summary, well-explained question answers of every mark category, MCQs, fill-in-the-blanks, true/false statements and a glossary table. Use it for revision, written exams and quick recall before the ASSEB Higher Secondary final examination.
Chapter Summary
Biotechnology applications fall broadly under four heads — agriculture, medicine, industrial products and environmental cleanup. In agriculture, three options exist for raising productivity: (i) chemical agriculture using synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, (ii) organic agriculture relying on biological inputs, and (iii) genetically modified (GM) crop based agriculture. Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs). GM crops can be made pest-resistant (Bt cotton from Bacillus thuringiensis using cry genes such as cryIAc, cryIIAb against bollworms, and cryIAb against corn borer), herbicide-resistant, disease-resistant, and tolerant to abiotic stresses like cold, drought, salt and heat. Golden rice is engineered to produce pro-vitamin A (β-carotene) to fight vitamin A deficiency. Nematode-resistant tobacco uses RNA interference (RNAi) to silence specific mRNA of Meloidogyne incognita so that the parasite cannot survive in the transgenic host.
In medicine, recombinant DNA technology has provided life-saving therapeutics. Recombinant human insulin (Humulin) was prepared by Eli Lilly in 1983; the A-chain (21 amino acids) and B-chain (30 amino acids) were produced separately in Escherichia coli, extracted, and assembled by creating disulphide bonds to form mature human insulin. This avoids the immunogenicity of animal-source insulin earlier obtained from slaughtered cattle and pigs. Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allow correction of a gene defect by inserting a normal gene into cells or tissues. The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a four-year-old girl, Ashanti DeSilva, suffering from adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. Functional ADA cDNA was introduced into her lymphocytes using a retroviral vector and the cells were returned to her body — a temporary cure, since the lymphocytes are not immortal.
Molecular diagnosis uses tools like PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) for detecting pathogens (HIV, mutated genes, suspected cancers) at very low concentrations, ELISA for antigen-antibody detection of infections, and DNA probes for sequence-specific identification. DNA fingerprinting techniques use VNTR (Variable Number Tandem Repeats) and RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) markers for forensic and parentage testing. Transgenic animals are animals that have a foreign gene deliberately introduced. Examples include the cow Rosie (1997) which produced human α-lactalbumin enriched milk (2.4 g/L), animal models for Alzheimer’s, cystic fibrosis and cancer, and animals used to test the safety of new vaccines (such as polio vaccine). Transgenic animals also help in producing useful biological products like α-1 antitrypsin and clotting factors.
Ethical issues arise because genetic manipulation can have unpredictable outcomes on natural ecosystems and on human social fabric. The Indian government has set up the GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) which decides on the validity of GM research and safety of GM organisms for public use. Biopiracy refers to use of bio-resources or traditional knowledge by multinational companies and other organisations without proper authorisation from the countries and people concerned. Examples include patents claimed on Indian neem, basmati rice and turmeric. The Indian Parliament has amended the Patents Bill so that emergency provisions, compulsory licensing and protection of indigenous bio-resources are addressed. Patents and intellectual property rights are central to modern biotechnology.
1 Mark Question Answers
Q1. What is the full form of GMO?
Answer: Genetically Modified Organism.
Q2. Name the bacterium from which the Bt toxin gene is isolated.
Answer: Bacillus thuringiensis.
Q3. Which cry genes are used in Bt cotton against bollworms?
Answer: cryIAc and cryIIAb.
Q4. What is the trade name of the first commercially produced recombinant human insulin?
Answer: Humulin (by Eli Lilly, 1983).
Q5. Who was the first patient to receive gene therapy?
Answer: Ashanti DeSilva (1990), suffering from ADA deficiency.
Q6. What is the full form of GEAC?
Answer: Genetic Engineering Approval Committee.
Q7. Name the first transgenic cow that produced human α-lactalbumin in her milk.
Answer: Rosie (1997).
Q8. What is golden rice enriched with?
Answer: Pro-vitamin A (β-carotene).
Q9. Name the technique used to silence specific mRNA in nematode-resistant tobacco.
Answer: RNA interference (RNAi).
Q10. What does the term biopiracy mean in one line?
Answer: Unauthorised use of bio-resources or traditional knowledge of a country by other countries or companies.
Q11. Name the inactive form of Bt toxin found inside the bacterium.
Answer: Protoxin (crystal protein).
Q12. Which vector was used to deliver the functional ADA gene in Ashanti DeSilva’s gene therapy?
Answer: Retroviral vector.
Q13. Name two molecular techniques used in DNA fingerprinting.
Answer: VNTR analysis and RFLP analysis.
Q14. How many amino acids are present in the A-chain of mature human insulin?
Answer: 21 amino acids.
2-3 Marks Question Answers
Q1. What are the three options available for increasing food production in agriculture?
Answer: The three options are: (i) agro-chemical based agriculture using synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, (ii) organic agriculture using biological manure, biofertilisers and biopesticides, and (iii) genetically engineered crop based agriculture in which crop plants are genetically modified for higher yield, pest resistance and stress tolerance.
Q2. What is Bt cotton? How does the Bt toxin act?
Answer: Bt cotton is a transgenic cotton plant that carries the cry gene from Bacillus thuringiensis. The gene encodes an inactive crystal protein (protoxin). When an insect larva feeds on the cotton, the alkaline pH of the insect midgut converts the protoxin into the active toxin, which binds to gut epithelial cells, creates pores, causes cell lysis and kills the insect (e.g., bollworms).
Q3. Why is Bt toxin harmless to the bacterium that produces it?
Answer: In Bacillus thuringiensis, the toxin is produced as inactive protoxin (crystal protein). It becomes active only when ingested by insect larvae and exposed to the alkaline pH of their gut. Because the bacterium itself does not have the activating alkaline environment, it remains unharmed.
Q4. What is RNA interference? How is it used to develop nematode-resistant tobacco?
Answer: RNA interference (RNAi) is a cellular defence mechanism in which a complementary double-stranded RNA molecule binds to and silences a specific mRNA, preventing translation. Nematode Meloidogyne incognita infects tobacco roots. Nematode-specific genes were introduced into the host plant using Agrobacterium vectors and double-stranded RNA was produced. The dsRNA silenced the parasite’s mRNA, so the nematode could not survive — making the plant resistant.
Q5. Mention any three advantages of recombinant human insulin over animal insulin.
Answer: (i) It is structurally identical to human insulin and does not cause immune/allergic reactions. (ii) It can be produced in unlimited quantity by culturing recombinant E. coli. (iii) It is cheaper and ethically more acceptable than insulin extracted from slaughtered cattle and pigs.
Q6. What is gene therapy? Give one example.
Answer: Gene therapy is a collection of methods that aim to correct a defective gene by inserting a functional gene into the cells of a patient. Example — In 1990, Ashanti DeSilva received gene therapy for ADA deficiency. A functional ADA cDNA was introduced into her lymphocytes via a retroviral vector and the modified cells were returned to her body.
Q7. What is biopiracy? Give two Indian examples.
Answer: Biopiracy is the unauthorised exploitation of bio-resources and/or traditional knowledge of one country by individuals or companies of other countries without proper compensation. Indian examples — patents granted on neem and turmeric by foreign companies, both later revoked.
Q8. Differentiate between pro-insulin and mature insulin.
Answer: Pro-insulin is the inactive precursor of insulin in which the A-chain and B-chain are joined by an additional C-peptide. Mature insulin is the active hormone obtained after the C-peptide is enzymatically removed; it has only the A-chain and B-chain held together by two interchain disulphide bonds and one intrachain disulphide bond in the A-chain.
Q9. What is meant by molecular diagnosis? Why is it superior to conventional methods?
Answer: Molecular diagnosis is the use of nucleic-acid based and protein-based techniques (PCR, ELISA, DNA probes) to detect a disease at the molecular level even before symptoms appear. It is superior because of its high sensitivity (can detect a single pathogen molecule), specificity (uses complementary sequences and antibodies) and speed compared to traditional culture or serological methods.
Q10. Why are transgenic animals useful in vaccine safety testing?
Answer: Transgenic animals are designed to mimic human responses to vaccines. Before a vaccine, like the polio vaccine, is given to humans, it is first tested on transgenic mice. If the vaccine is reliable on these animal models, it can be used safely in humans. This reduces the dependence on monkeys and other primate models, making the testing process faster, cheaper and ethically more acceptable.
Q11. Distinguish between organic agriculture and GM-based agriculture.
Answer: Organic agriculture uses natural inputs such as compost, biofertilisers and biopesticides without any synthetic chemicals or genetic manipulation. GM-based agriculture uses genetically modified crop varieties created by inserting useful foreign genes (e.g. cry genes for pest resistance) to achieve higher yields, pest resistance and stress tolerance. Organic farming protects soil ecology while GM farming dramatically increases productivity but raises ethical and ecological concerns.
Q12. Why was Ashanti DeSilva’s gene therapy not a permanent cure?
Answer: The functional ADA cDNA was introduced into her lymphocytes, which have a limited life span. As the genetically corrected lymphocytes died, fresh untreated cells came up from the bone marrow. Hence the patient required periodic infusions of the modified lymphocytes. A permanent cure would require introducing the gene into haematopoietic stem cells at the early embryonic stage.
Q13. Mention any three reasons for which transgenic animals are produced.
Answer: (i) To study how genes are regulated and contribute to normal physiology and development. (ii) To create models for human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis and Alzheimer’s. (iii) To produce useful biological products like α-1 antitrypsin and human α-lactalbumin (Rosie cow). Additional purposes include vaccine safety testing and chemical toxicity testing.
Q14. What is meant by patent? How are patents related to biotechnology?
Answer: A patent is an exclusive right granted by a government to an inventor or company to make, use and sell an invention for a fixed period (usually 20 years). In biotechnology, patents are claimed on novel genes, recombinant organisms, vaccines, diagnostic kits and processes. They protect investment in research and development. However, patents on traditional knowledge or naturally occurring bio-resources (e.g. neem, turmeric, basmati rice) amount to biopiracy and are opposed under international biodiversity law.
5-7 Marks Question Answers
Q1. Describe the production of recombinant human insulin (Humulin) by Eli Lilly.
Answer: Mature human insulin is a small protein consisting of two polypeptide chains — the A-chain (21 amino acids) and the B-chain (30 amino acids) joined by two interchain disulphide bridges. In the human body, insulin is first synthesised as pro-insulin with an extra peptide called the C-peptide, which is later removed during maturation. In 1983, the American company Eli Lilly prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to the A-chain and B-chain of human insulin separately. These were inserted into plasmid vectors and introduced into Escherichia coli cells. Each recombinant E. coli strain produced one chain. The A and B chains were then extracted, purified and combined chemically by creating disulphide bonds, giving rise to functional human insulin marketed as Humulin. This eliminated the need for animal pancreas and the immunogenic reactions caused by animal insulin.
Q2. Discuss the various applications of GM crops in agriculture.
Answer: GM crops have transformed agriculture in several ways: (i) Pest resistance — Bt cotton with cryIAc and cryIIAb genes resists bollworm; Bt corn with cryIAb resists corn borer. (ii) Herbicide tolerance — crops engineered to be unaffected by broad-spectrum herbicides allow easier weed control. (iii) Disease resistance — viral coat protein and other resistance genes protect crops against pathogens. (iv) Tolerance to abiotic stresses — cold, drought, heat and salinity tolerant crops have been raised. (v) Reduced post-harvest loss — slow-ripening tomato (Flavr Savr). (vi) Improved mineral utilisation — phosphorus solubilising crops. (vii) Enhanced nutritional value — golden rice fortified with pro-vitamin A combats vitamin A deficiency, especially in children. GM crops therefore reduce chemical pesticide load, increase yield and improve quality.
Q3. Explain transgenic animals with reference to Rosie and other examples.
Answer: Transgenic animals are animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene. They are created for several purposes: (i) Normal physiology and development — to study how genes are regulated and how they affect normal body functions. (ii) Study of disease — many transgenic animals serve as models for human diseases like cancer, cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer’s and rheumatoid arthritis. (iii) Biological products — useful proteins are obtained at low cost; for example, the transgenic cow Rosie (1997) produced human α-lactalbumin enriched milk (2.4 g/L) which is more nutritionally balanced for babies than ordinary cow milk. Other examples include sheep producing α-1 antitrypsin (for emphysema) and transgenic mice for cancer research. (iv) Vaccine safety — transgenic mice are used to test the safety of vaccines (e.g. polio vaccine) before human trials. (v) Chemical safety testing — transgenic animals carrying genes that make them sensitive to toxic substances allow more rapid testing of drugs and toxins.
Q4. Discuss the ethical issues, GEAC and biopiracy in biotechnology.
Answer: Genetic modification of living organisms raises serious ethical, social and ecological concerns. Bypassing of natural species barriers, possible spread of GM genes to wild relatives, harm to non-target organisms and unpredictable allergenic effects on humans are major ethical worries. To regulate this, the Indian Government has constituted the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), which makes decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM organisms for public services. Bioethics deals with the moral implications of biological research and applications. Biopiracy is the use of bio-resources or indigenous knowledge by multinational companies and others without proper authorisation and compensatory payment to the countries and people concerned. Indian examples include patenting of products from neem, basmati rice and turmeric by foreign companies. India has amended its Patents Bill to protect indigenous knowledge and bio-resources and recognise compulsory licensing in emergencies. Patents and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) thus play a central role in safeguarding both inventors and traditional communities.
Q5. Describe the various tools of molecular diagnosis used in modern medicine.
Answer: Early diagnosis is essential for effective treatment, and molecular biology has provided several powerful tools. (i) PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) amplifies a small amount of nucleic acid into millions of copies; it is used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients, mutations in suspected cancer patients, and presence of pathogens at very low levels. (ii) ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) detects pathogens by antigen-antibody reaction with a colour-producing enzyme — used for HIV, hepatitis and other infections. (iii) DNA probes are short, single-stranded, labelled DNA pieces that hybridise with complementary sequences in the patient sample; used for genetic disease screening. (iv) VNTR (Variable Number Tandem Repeats) and RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) analyses are key to DNA fingerprinting, used in paternity testing, identification of criminals, and in molecular epidemiology. Together these tools enable rapid, sensitive and specific diagnosis of diseases at the molecular level — long before clinical symptoms become apparent.
Q6. Explain in detail the working principle of Bt cotton with respect to cry genes.
Answer: The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces a special class of insecticidal proteins called Bt toxins. These toxins are encoded by genes named cry genes. Different cry proteins target different insects: cryIAc and cryIIAb control cotton bollworms, while cryIAb controls corn borer. The Bt toxin is produced inside Bacillus as inactive crystals known as protoxins. When an insect ingests the protoxin, the alkaline pH of its midgut solubilises the crystal and converts it into the active toxin. The toxin binds to specific receptors on the surface of midgut epithelial cells, creates pores, causes osmotic lysis and kills the larva. Scientists have isolated cry genes from B. thuringiensis and incorporated them into the cotton genome using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The transgenic cotton (Bt cotton) thus expresses the toxin in its tissues, and any caterpillar that feeds on it dies — eliminating the need for repeated chemical insecticide sprays. Bt cotton has greatly reduced pesticide use and improved yields in India and other cotton-growing nations.
Q7. Briefly describe golden rice and the importance of biofortification.
Answer: Golden rice is a transgenic variety of rice (Oryza sativa) genetically engineered by introducing two genes — psy (phytoene synthase) from daffodil and crtI from the soil bacterium Erwinia uredovora — that together enable the rice endosperm to synthesise β-carotene, the precursor of vitamin A. Its yellow grains give it the name “golden”. Biofortification is the breeding or genetic engineering of crops with higher levels of vitamins, minerals or essential proteins to improve public health. Golden rice was developed to combat vitamin A deficiency (VAD), a major cause of childhood blindness in rice-eating populations of Asia and Africa. Other examples of biofortification include iron-rich rice, zinc-rich wheat and protein-rich potatoes. Biofortification offers a sustainable way to deliver micronutrients without expensive supplements.
Q8. Discuss gene therapy with the example of Ashanti DeSilva and explain why it is considered a milestone in medicine.
Answer: Gene therapy is a collection of methods that allow correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed in a child or embryo. Genes are introduced into a person’s cells to compensate for non-functional genes. The first clinical gene therapy was administered in 1990 to a four-year-old American girl, Ashanti DeSilva, suffering from Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) deficiency. ADA deficiency is caused by the deletion of the gene for ADA, an enzyme essential for the immune system. The traditional treatments were bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy, both of which are not fully curative. In gene therapy, lymphocytes were taken from the patient’s blood and grown in culture; functional ADA cDNA (using a retroviral vector) was introduced into these lymphocytes; the genetically corrected lymphocytes were returned to the patient’s body. Since lymphocytes have a limited lifespan, the procedure had to be repeated periodically. A permanent cure would require introducing the ADA gene into haematopoietic stem cells. The case of Ashanti DeSilva is a milestone because it proved that genetic disorders can be treated at the molecular level, opening the door to therapies for cystic fibrosis, severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), haemophilia, sickle-cell anaemia and many other inherited disorders.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Q1. The cry genes used in Bt cotton are obtained from —
(a) Escherichia coli
(b) Bacillus thuringiensis
(c) Agrobacterium tumefaciens
(d) Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Answer: (b) Bacillus thuringiensis.
Q2. The first recombinant therapeutic to be approved for human use was —
(a) Insulin (Humulin)
(b) Human growth hormone
(c) Interferon
(d) Tissue plasminogen activator
Answer: (a) Insulin (Humulin).
Q3. Golden rice is rich in —
(a) Vitamin C
(b) Iron
(c) Pro-vitamin A (β-carotene)
(d) Vitamin D
Answer: (c) Pro-vitamin A (β-carotene).
Q4. The first patient to undergo gene therapy was —
(a) A boy with cystic fibrosis
(b) Ashanti DeSilva, with ADA deficiency
(c) A man with sickle cell anaemia
(d) A baby with phenylketonuria
Answer: (b) Ashanti DeSilva, with ADA deficiency.
Q5. The transgenic cow Rosie produced milk enriched in —
(a) Casein
(b) Human α-lactalbumin
(c) Lactose
(d) Whey protein
Answer: (b) Human α-lactalbumin.
Q6. GEAC stands for —
(a) Genetic Engineering Advisory Council
(b) Genetic Engineering Approval Committee
(c) Genetic Engineering Action Cell
(d) Genetic Engineering Authority of Country
Answer: (b) Genetic Engineering Approval Committee.
Q7. The Bt protoxin becomes active in the insect gut due to —
(a) Acidic pH
(b) Alkaline pH
(c) Neutral pH
(d) Cold temperature
Answer: (b) Alkaline pH.
Q8. Nematode-resistant tobacco was developed using —
(a) DNA fingerprinting
(b) RNA interference (RNAi)
(c) Tissue culture
(d) Hybridisation
Answer: (b) RNA interference (RNAi).
Q9. The B-chain of human insulin contains —
(a) 21 amino acids
(b) 30 amino acids
(c) 51 amino acids
(d) 100 amino acids
Answer: (b) 30 amino acids.
Q10. Patents on neem, turmeric and basmati rice are examples of —
(a) Bioethics
(b) Biopiracy
(c) Biofortification
(d) Bioprospecting
Answer: (b) Biopiracy.
Q11. Which of the following is NOT a transgenic crop?
(a) Bt cotton
(b) Golden rice
(c) Flavr Savr tomato
(d) Hybrid maize
Answer: (d) Hybrid maize.
Q12. Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency is caused due to deletion of the gene for —
(a) Adenosine deaminase
(b) Adenosine kinase
(c) Adenine deaminase
(d) Adenine kinase
Answer: (a) Adenosine deaminase.
Q13. The transgenic crop developed against nematode Meloidogyne incognita is —
(a) Bt cotton
(b) Bt brinjal
(c) Tobacco
(d) Golden rice
Answer: (c) Tobacco.
Q14. Which of the following is used to amplify a small DNA sample for diagnosis?
(a) ELISA
(b) PCR
(c) RFLP
(d) Southern blot
Answer: (b) PCR.
Q15. The trade name “Humulin” was given in the year —
(a) 1973
(b) 1980
(c) 1983
(d) 1990
Answer: (c) 1983.
Fill in the Blanks
Q1. The full form of GMO is ____________ .
Answer: Genetically Modified Organism.
Q2. Recombinant human insulin (Humulin) was first produced in 1983 by the company ____________ .
Answer: Eli Lilly.
Q3. The cry gene effective against corn borer is ____________ .
Answer: cryIAb.
Q4. The technique used in nematode-resistant tobacco is ____________ .
Answer: RNA interference (RNAi).
Q5. The Indian regulatory body for GM organisms is ____________ .
Answer: GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee).
Q6. The transgenic cow ____________ produced milk rich in human α-lactalbumin.
Answer: Rosie.
Q7. The host bacterium used for the production of recombinant insulin is ____________ .
Answer: Escherichia coli.
True / False
Q1. Bt cotton is resistant to bollworm because of the cry genes inserted from Bacillus thuringiensis.
Answer: True.
Q2. Humulin is recombinant human insulin produced in E. coli.
Answer: True.
Q3. Ashanti DeSilva was given gene therapy in 1990 for cystic fibrosis.
Answer: False (it was for ADA deficiency).
Q4. Golden rice is engineered to be rich in iron.
Answer: False (it is rich in pro-vitamin A / β-carotene).
Q5. The transgenic cow Rosie produced milk containing human α-lactalbumin.
Answer: True.
Q6. ELISA detects pathogens by antigen-antibody reaction.
Answer: True.
Q7. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a protein-based diagnostic technique.
Answer: False (it is a DNA amplification technique).
Q8. The Bt protoxin in Bacillus thuringiensis is harmful to the bacterium itself.
Answer: False (the bacterium remains unharmed because of the absence of alkaline pH).
Glossary
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| GMO | Genetically Modified Organism — plant, animal or microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering. |
| Bt cotton | Transgenic cotton carrying cry genes from Bacillus thuringiensis for pest resistance. |
| cry genes | Genes (e.g. cryIAc, cryIIAb, cryIAb) that code for crystal protein toxins lethal to insect larvae. |
| Protoxin | Inactive form of the Bt crystal protein, activated by alkaline pH of insect gut. |
| RNA interference (RNAi) | A cellular mechanism in which a complementary dsRNA silences a specific mRNA, used in nematode-resistant tobacco. |
| Golden rice | Genetically engineered rice variety that produces β-carotene (pro-vitamin A) in its grains. |
| Humulin | Recombinant human insulin produced in E. coli; first marketed by Eli Lilly in 1983. |
| A-chain / B-chain | The two polypeptide chains of mature insulin (21 and 30 amino acids respectively) joined by disulphide bonds. |
| Pro-insulin | Precursor of insulin containing an extra C-peptide that is removed during maturation. |
| Gene therapy | Correction of a genetic disorder by introducing a normal gene into a patient’s cells. |
| ADA deficiency | Adenosine Deaminase deficiency — inherited immunodeficiency treated by gene therapy in Ashanti DeSilva (1990). |
| PCR | Polymerase Chain Reaction — technique for amplifying minute amounts of DNA for diagnosis. |
| ELISA | Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay — antigen-antibody based detection of pathogens. |
| DNA probe | Short labelled single-stranded DNA used to detect a complementary sequence in a sample. |
| VNTR | Variable Number Tandem Repeats — short DNA repeats used in DNA fingerprinting. |
| RFLP | Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism — DNA marker based on differences in restriction sites. |
| Transgenic animal | Animal whose genome has been altered to carry a foreign gene (e.g. cow Rosie). |
| Rosie | The first transgenic cow (1997) that produced milk enriched in human α-lactalbumin (2.4 g/L). |
| GEAC | Genetic Engineering Approval Committee — Indian regulatory body for GM research and products. |
| Bioethics | Study of moral and ethical issues arising from biological research and applications. |
| Biopiracy | Unauthorised use of bio-resources or indigenous knowledge of one country by another country or company. |
| Patent | Legal right granted to an inventor to exclude others from making, using or selling the invention for a fixed time. |
| IPR | Intellectual Property Rights — rights protecting creations of the mind including biotechnological inventions. |
| Agrobacterium tumefaciens | Soil bacterium used as a natural vector for transferring foreign DNA into dicot plants. |
| β-carotene | Orange-yellow plant pigment that is converted into vitamin A in the human body. |
| Biofortification | Breeding or engineering of crops to enhance their nutritional value (vitamins, minerals, proteins). |
| Flavr Savr tomato | The first commercially grown genetically engineered food crop, with delayed ripening characteristics. |
| α-1 antitrypsin | A human protein produced by transgenic sheep, used in the treatment of emphysema. |
| Retroviral vector | A modified retrovirus used to deliver therapeutic genes (e.g. ADA cDNA) into target cells. |
| Hybridisation (DNA) | Pairing of complementary single-stranded nucleic acids; the basis of probe-based detection. |
| Compulsory licensing | A legal provision allowing a government to permit production of a patented product without the patent holder’s consent in case of emergency. |
| VAD | Vitamin A Deficiency — a leading cause of preventable blindness in children, addressed by golden rice. |
| Bollworm | Larva of certain moths (e.g. Helicoverpa armigera) that bores into cotton bolls and damages the crop. |
| Corn borer | Insect pest of maize (corn) targeted by cryIAb Bt toxin. |
| Meloidogyne incognita | Root-knot nematode parasite of tobacco controlled in transgenic plants by RNA interference. |
| cDNA | Complementary DNA — DNA copy of an mRNA, made using reverse transcriptase; used in gene therapy and cloning. |
| Disulphide bond | Covalent S–S bond formed between two cysteine residues; holds the A and B chains of insulin together. |
| Hybridoma | Hybrid cell formed by fusion of an antibody-producing B cell and a myeloma cell, used to produce monoclonal antibodies. |
| Bioreactor | Large vessel for the controlled culture of microorganisms or cells used in industrial biotechnology. |
| Bt brinjal | Transgenic brinjal (eggplant) carrying cry genes for resistance against fruit and shoot borer. |
| Recombinant DNA | DNA molecule formed by joining DNA segments from different sources, used to make GMOs. |