Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Question Answer | Local Governments | ASSEB
Welcome to HSLC Guru. This page provides the complete solution to Class 11 Political Science (Indian Constitution at Work) Chapter 8 — Local Governments for ASSEB (Assam State School Education Board) HS First Year students. The chapter explains the constitutional foundation of local self-government in India, the historical journey of Panchayati Raj, the landmark 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts of 1992, the three-tier rural Panchayati Raj system (Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad), the structure of urban local bodies (Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat), the contents of the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules, reservation provisions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women, the role of the State Election Commission and the State Finance Commission, the special provisions for the North-East under the Sixth Schedule, and the working of autonomous councils such as the Bodoland Territorial Council in Assam. The notes contain detailed answers to all NCERT textbook questions, additional short and long answer questions, multiple choice questions and important key terms — fully aligned with the ASSEB HS First Year Political Science syllabus.
Summary
Local government is the form of democratic government that operates closest to the common citizen. It is concerned with the day-to-day needs of villages, towns and cities — drinking water, sanitation, primary education, local roads, street lighting, primary health care and similar issues. Because the people elected to local bodies live in the same locality and personally face the same problems, local government is regarded as the most accessible, responsive and participatory tier of democracy. Mahatma Gandhi described it as “Gram Swaraj” — the idea that every village should be a self-governing republic of its own.
India has a long tradition of village self-government dating back to ancient times. After independence, Article 40 of the Constitution placed local self-government in the Directive Principles, asking states to organise village panchayats. Lord Ripon’s Resolution of 1882 is often called the Magna Carta of local self-government in India. In the early years after independence, several states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan set up panchayats following the recommendations of the Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) and later the Ashok Mehta Committee (1977). However, these institutions remained weak, irregular and dependent on the will of state governments. To give them constitutional status and uniformity across the country, Parliament passed two landmark amendments in 1992 — the 73rd Amendment for rural areas and the 74th Amendment for urban areas. Both came into force in 1993.
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 introduced a uniform three-tier Panchayati Raj system — the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Panchayat Samiti (Block / Mandal / Anchalik Panchayat) at the intermediate level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. States with a population below twenty lakh are exempt from creating the intermediate tier. Members of all three tiers are elected directly by the people for a fixed term of five years. If a panchayat is dissolved earlier, fresh elections must be held within six months. The Gram Sabha — the general assembly of all registered voters of a village — is the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system and approves the budget and plan of the Gram Panchayat. The Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution lists 29 subjects, including agriculture, minor irrigation, drinking water, primary education, health and sanitation, that may be transferred to panchayats by state legislation.
The 73rd Amendment also brought in a path-breaking system of reservations. Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population, and not less than one-third of the total seats (now raised to fifty per cent in many states, including Assam) are reserved for women. One-third of the offices of chairpersons (Sarpanch / Pradhan / Adhyaksha) are also reserved for women. Reservations for Other Backward Classes are left to state legislatures. As a result of these provisions, more than thirty lakh elected representatives have come into the local government system, of whom over ten lakh are women. Two new constitutional bodies were also created at the state level — the State Election Commission, which conducts free and fair elections to all panchayats and municipalities, and the State Finance Commission, which reviews the financial position of local bodies every five years and recommends devolution of taxes, duties and grants from the state to the local bodies.
The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 deals with urban local self-government. Three types of municipal bodies were specified depending on the size and character of the urban area — the Nagar Panchayat for an area in transition from rural to urban, the Municipal Council for a smaller urban area, and the Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area such as a metropolitan city. Members of these bodies are elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution lists 18 subjects which can be transferred to urban local bodies, including urban planning, regulation of land use, water supply, public health and sanitation, slum improvement, urban poverty alleviation and protection of the environment. Provisions for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women are similar to those for panchayats. Wards Committees are constituted within municipalities to ensure people’s participation at the neighbourhood level.
Special provisions exist for tribal and hill areas in the North-East. The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution provides for Autonomous District Councils and Autonomous Regional Councils in the tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. These councils have the power to make laws on land, forests, social customs, marriage and inheritance, and to manage their own funds. In Assam, the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) — created in 2003 and strengthened by the 2020 Bodo Accord — and other autonomous councils such as the Karbi Anglong, Dima Hasao, Mising, Tiwa, Rabha-Hasong, Sonowal Kachari, Thengal Kachari and Deori Autonomous Councils represent India’s most extensive experiment in ethnic and territorial self-government. Together, the rural panchayats, urban municipalities and autonomous councils form the third tier of Indian democracy and are the institutional embodiment of decentralisation, popular participation and grass-roots planning. Despite achievements, local governments still face challenges of inadequate finances, dependence on state bureaucracy, low transfer of subjects, dominance of upper castes and political interference. Strengthening their capacity remains a continuing task of Indian democracy.
সাৰাংশ
স্থানীয় চৰকাৰ হৈছে গণতন্ত্ৰৰ আটাইতকৈ ওচৰৰ স্তৰ — গাঁও, নগৰ আৰু চহৰৰ দৈনন্দিন প্ৰশাসন চলোৱা চৰকাৰ। ই লোকৰ দৈনন্দিন সমস্যা যেনে খোৱাপানী, পয়ঃনিষ্কাশন, প্ৰাথমিক শিক্ষা, ৰাস্তা-ঘাট, প্ৰাথমিক স্বাস্থ্য সেৱা আদিৰ লগত প্ৰত্যক্ষভাৱে জড়িত। মহাত্মা গান্ধীয়ে ইয়াক “গ্ৰাম স্বৰাজ” বুলি কৈছিল। ভাৰতৰ সংবিধানৰ ৪০ অনুচ্ছেদে ৰাজ্য চৰকাৰসমূহক গাঁও পঞ্চায়ত গঠন কৰিবলৈ নিৰ্দেশ দিছে। ১৮৮২ চনৰ লৰ্ড ৰিপনৰ প্ৰস্তাৱক ভাৰতৰ স্থানীয় স্বশাসনৰ মেগনা কাৰ্টা বুলি কোৱা হয়। স্বাধীনতাৰ পিছত বলৱন্তৰাই মেহতা সমিতি (১৯৫৭) আৰু অশোক মেহতা সমিতি (১৯৭৭)ৰ পৰামৰ্শ অনুসৰি বহুটো ৰাজ্যত পঞ্চায়ত প্ৰতিষ্ঠা হয়, কিন্তু এই প্ৰতিষ্ঠানসমূহ দুৰ্বল আৰু ৰাজ্য চৰকাৰৰ ওপৰত নিৰ্ভৰশীল আছিল।
১৯৯২ চনত সংসদে দুটা ঐতিহাসিক সংশোধনী পাছ কৰিলে — গ্ৰামাঞ্চলৰ বাবে ৭৩তম সংশোধনী আৰু নগৰাঞ্চলৰ বাবে ৭৪তম সংশোধনী। উভয়ে ১৯৯৩ চনৰ পৰা কাৰ্যকৰী হয়। ৭৩তম সংশোধনীয়ে সমগ্ৰ ভাৰতত এক সমসত্ত্ব ত্ৰি-স্তৰীয় পঞ্চায়তী ৰাজ ব্যৱস্থা প্ৰৱৰ্তন কৰিলে — গাঁৱৰ স্তৰত গ্ৰাম পঞ্চায়ত, খণ্ড স্তৰত পঞ্চায়ত সমিতি (অঞ্চলিক পঞ্চায়ত) আৰু জিলা স্তৰত জিলা পৰিষদ। সকলো স্তৰৰ সদস্য পাঁচ বছৰৰ বাবে প্ৰত্যক্ষ ভোটেৰে নিৰ্বাচিত হয়। গ্ৰাম সভা হৈছে গাঁৱৰ সকলো ভোটাৰৰ সাধাৰণ সভা আৰু পঞ্চায়তী ৰাজৰ ভেটি। সংবিধানৰ একাদশ তফচিলত পঞ্চায়তলৈ হস্তান্তৰযোগ্য ২৯টা বিষয় উল্লেখ আছে।
৭৩তম সংশোধনীয়ে অনুসূচিত জাতি, অনুসূচিত জনজাতি আৰু মহিলাৰ বাবে আসন সংৰক্ষণৰ ব্যৱস্থা কৰিলে — মুঠ আসনৰ এক-তৃতীয়াংশ মহিলাৰ বাবে সংৰক্ষিত (অসমকে ধৰি বহুটো ৰাজ্যত এতিয়া ৫০ শতাংশ)। ৰাজ্য নিৰ্বাচন আয়োগ আৰু ৰাজ্য বিত্ত আয়োগ নামৰ দুটা নতুন সাংবিধানিক সংস্থাও সৃষ্টি কৰা হ’ল। ৭৪তম সংশোধনীয়ে নগৰাঞ্চলৰ বাবে নগৰ পঞ্চায়ত, পৌৰ পৰিষদ আৰু পৌৰ নিগম স্থাপন কৰিলে। দ্বাদশ তফচিলত নগৰ স্থানীয় সংস্থালৈ হস্তান্তৰযোগ্য ১৮টা বিষয় আছে। সংবিধানৰ ষষ্ঠ তফচিলে অসম, মেঘালয়, ত্ৰিপুৰা আৰু মিজোৰামৰ জনজাতীয় অঞ্চলৰ বাবে স্বায়ত্তশাসিত পৰিষদৰ ব্যৱস্থা কৰিছে। অসমত বড়োলেণ্ড আঞ্চলিক পৰিষদ (BTC), কাৰ্বি আংলং, ডিমা হাছাও, মিচিং, তিৱা, ৰাভা-হাচং, চনোৱাল কছাৰী, থেঙাল কছাৰী আৰু দেউৰী স্বায়ত্তশাসিত পৰিষদে এই সাংবিধানিক ব্যৱস্থাক প্ৰতিনিধিত্ব কৰে। স্থানীয় চৰকাৰে ভাৰতীয় গণতন্ত্ৰৰ তৃতীয় স্তম্ভ হিচাপে বিকেন্দ্ৰীকৰণ আৰু জনগণৰ অংশগ্ৰহণৰ সংস্থাগত ৰূপ দিছে।
NCERT Textbook Questions and Answers
Question 1. According to the Constitution and the law, the elected village panchayats have the responsibility to plan and implement the development programmes of the village. Looking at the cases below, identify whether each strengthens or weakens the panchayat as a unit of self-government.
(a) The government has decided to set up a steel plant in the area without consulting the village panchayats which would be affected by it. The Gram Sabha of one village passed a resolution against the proposed plant and also sent a copy of the resolution to the government.
Answer: The decision of the government to set up the steel plant without consulting the affected panchayats weakens the panchayat as a unit of self-government, because it bypasses the local body that represents the people. However, by passing a resolution against the project and forwarding it to the government, the Gram Sabha has asserted its right to be consulted and has, in this respect, strengthened its role as a self-governing institution.
(b) The government has decided that 20 per cent of all its expenditure in rural areas would be done through the village panchayats.
Answer: This decision strengthens the panchayat as a unit of self-government. Devolution of funds is one of the most important pre-conditions of genuine decentralisation. By routing 20 per cent of rural expenditure through panchayats, the government enables them to plan and execute development works according to local priorities, instead of being mere implementing agents of state schemes.
(c) The village panchayat has refused to give money from its funds for the broken hand-pump in the Dalit basti (locality). The Block Development Officer has asked the panchayat to release the money.
Answer: Refusal of the panchayat to release funds for repairing the hand-pump in the Dalit basti weakens it both as a self-government unit and as a democratic institution, because it fails in its duty of equal treatment of all citizens. Such caste-based discrimination defeats the very purpose of decentralisation. The Block Development Officer’s intervention to enforce the release of funds is therefore appropriate, but the long-term remedy is greater social awareness and accountability within the panchayat.
(d) The government has issued an order that the village panchayat must take the permission of the District Collector before spending more than Rs 5,000 from its fund.
Answer: This order clearly weakens the panchayat as a unit of self-government. Decentralisation requires that local bodies have the freedom to take their own financial decisions within the powers assigned to them. Compulsory permission from the District Collector for routine expenditure reduces the panchayat to a subordinate office of the state administration and undermines its autonomy.
(e) Government has cut down the budget that used to come for various schemes for the welfare of villages. Now the village panchayats will have to raise the resources or run the schemes by collecting contributions from the people.
Answer: Cutting down the budget transferred to villages weakens panchayats. Self-government cannot survive without an adequate financial base. Asking panchayats to mobilise local contributions is acceptable as a supplement, but if it becomes a substitute for state grants, the burden falls disproportionately on the rural poor and many essential services collapse. Genuine decentralisation requires devolution of functions, functionaries and finances together.
Question 2. Suggest a few measures for making the gram sabha into an effective body.
Answer: The Gram Sabha is the general assembly of all adult voters of a village and is the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system. To make it effective, the following steps may be taken:
- Meetings of the Gram Sabha should be held regularly — at least four times a year — and on a fixed day so that everyone can plan to attend.
- The meeting should be held at a place and time that is convenient for women, daily-wage workers and members of weaker sections (for example, the village school after working hours, or a market day).
- The Gram Sabha must have real powers — approval of the annual budget, selection of beneficiaries for welfare schemes, and review of the work of the Gram Panchayat.
- Adequate publicity should be given to the agenda before each meeting through notice boards, drum beating and door-to-door information.
- People should be educated about their rights and duties as members of the Gram Sabha through literacy and awareness programmes.
- A minimum quorum, including a fixed proportion of women and members of SC/ST communities, should be made compulsory.
- Decisions taken by the Gram Sabha must be binding on the Gram Panchayat and recorded in writing.
Question 3. What are the provisions for the reservation of seats for the disadvantaged groups in the new panchayati raj system?
Answer: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 made the following provisions for the reservation of seats for disadvantaged groups in panchayats:
- Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in every panchayat in proportion to their share in the population of the panchayat area.
- Not less than one-third of the total seats are reserved for women, and this reservation applies to seats reserved for SCs and STs as well — so a Dalit woman or a tribal woman is assured of representation.
- One-third of the offices of chairpersons (Sarpanch / Pradhan / Adhyaksha) at all three levels are also reserved for women.
- State Legislatures may make reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in their respective states.
- Several states, including Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Maharashtra, have raised the women’s reservation in panchayats and municipalities to 50 per cent.
As a result of these provisions, over 14 lakh women have been elected as Panchayat members and chairpersons across India. The reservation policy has been one of the most important tools of social transformation at the grass-roots level.
Question 4. Discuss the difficulties faced by the local bodies in raising adequate financial resources.
Answer: Local bodies in India face severe financial difficulties despite the constitutional changes brought by the 73rd and 74th Amendments. The main difficulties are:
- Limited tax base: The taxes that panchayats and municipalities can levy — house tax, professional tax, market fees, water and sanitation fees — yield very little revenue, especially in poor rural areas.
- Heavy dependence on grants: Local bodies depend heavily on grants-in-aid from the state and central governments, which are often delayed, irregular and tied to specific schemes.
- Reluctance to tax: Elected representatives are reluctant to impose new taxes on their own neighbours and voters.
- Inadequate transfer of subjects: Although the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules list 29 and 18 subjects respectively, most state governments have not actually transferred these subjects, the staff or the corresponding funds.
- Weak State Finance Commissions: The recommendations of the State Finance Commissions are often ignored or only partially implemented by the state governments.
- Lack of expertise: Local bodies lack trained staff to prepare budgets, maintain accounts and explore new sources of revenue.
- Poor economic base: Most rural areas have a low per capita income, so internal resource mobilisation is naturally limited.
Question 5. What were the main differences between the local bodies that existed earlier and those after the 73rd Amendment?
Answer: There are several important differences between the local bodies that existed before and those that came up after the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992:
| Aspect | Before the 73rd Amendment | After the 73rd Amendment |
|---|---|---|
| Constitutional Status | Local government was only a Directive Principle (Article 40); panchayats had no constitutional protection. | Panchayati Raj has been given full constitutional status (Articles 243 to 243-O, Part IX). |
| Structure | Different states had different patterns; some had two tiers, some three, some none. | A uniform three-tier system — village, intermediate and district — is mandatory in all states with population above 20 lakh. |
| Elections | Elections were irregular; many states postponed them for years. | Elections are mandatory every five years; if a panchayat is dissolved earlier, fresh elections must be held within six months. |
| Election Authority | Conducted by the state administration, often unfairly. | Conducted by an independent State Election Commission. |
| Reservation | No uniform provision. | Reservation for SCs, STs in proportion to population and one-third for women. |
| Subjects | No defined list of subjects. | Eleventh Schedule lists 29 subjects which can be transferred to panchayats. |
| Finance | Depended on the state government’s will. | State Finance Commission reviews finances every five years and recommends devolution. |
| Gram Sabha | Not given a defined role. | Constitutionally recognised as the foundation of Panchayati Raj. |
Question 6. How does the local government make a difference for women?
Answer: The local government has made a major difference in the political and social life of women in India:
- The 73rd and 74th Amendments reserved one-third of seats for women in all panchayats and municipalities. As a result, more than 14 lakh women have been elected to local bodies — the largest entry of women into political institutions anywhere in the world.
- One-third (now 50 per cent in many states) of the offices of chairpersons are also reserved for women, so women now serve as Sarpanch, Adhyaksha, Mayor and Chairperson of municipalities.
- This has broken the traditional male monopoly over village-level decision-making and has built confidence among women to participate in public life.
- Women representatives have given priority to issues such as drinking water, sanitation, education of girls, public health, fuel and fodder, kitchen gardens and prevention of alcoholism — issues that directly affect the daily life of women.
- Many studies show that villages with women Sarpanchs have better drinking water facilities and a higher attendance of girls in schools.
- Reservation has empowered women from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in particular, who otherwise had little voice in village politics.
- Although problems such as the “Sarpanch Pati” (husband acting on behalf of an elected woman) still exist, the overall result has been a quiet revolution in the social position of women.
Question 7. In what ways does decentralisation strengthen democracy?
Answer: Decentralisation means the transfer of decision-making power from higher levels of government to lower levels — from the centre to the states and from the states to local bodies. It strengthens democracy in the following ways:
- Greater participation: When government is brought closer to the people, ordinary citizens can take part directly in decision-making, attend Gram Sabha meetings, and contest local elections.
- Better understanding of local needs: Local people know their own problems best, so plans made at the local level are more realistic and useful.
- Quick redress of grievances: The local representative is easily accessible, so people can voice their complaints without travelling long distances or going through complicated procedures.
- Training in democracy: Local bodies act as nurseries of democratic leadership, training citizens and especially women, SCs and STs in the working of public institutions.
- Reduces overload at the top: The Centre and states can concentrate on national issues while local bodies handle local issues.
- Promotes social justice: Reservations in local bodies bring marginalised groups into power and challenge entrenched social hierarchies.
- Better implementation: Decisions taken with people’s participation are accepted more readily and implemented more efficiently.
- Cost-effective: Local planning and supervision reduce wastage of public funds.
Question 8. If you were to study the working of any local body, what are the main things you would inquire about?
Answer: If I were to study the working of a local body — say, a Gram Panchayat or a Municipal Council — I would inquire about the following points:
- Composition: Number of elected members, reserved seats and the manner in which the chairperson is chosen.
- Elections: When the last election was held, the percentage of voter turnout, and whether the elections were free and fair.
- Functioning of the Gram Sabha / Wards Committee: Frequency of meetings, level of attendance, especially of women and SC/ST members, and types of issues discussed.
- Financial position: Sources of income (taxes, fees, grants), main heads of expenditure, and the role of the State Finance Commission.
- Subjects handled: Whether the 29 / 18 subjects of the Eleventh / Twelfth Schedule have actually been transferred and what services the local body delivers.
- Development works: Major schemes implemented, the quality of work and beneficiary satisfaction.
- Women’s participation: Number of women members, any women chairperson, and the way they exercise their powers.
- Relations with administration: Cooperation or interference from BDO, District Collector and other officials.
- Accountability: Maintenance of accounts, audit, social audit and complaints mechanism.
- Public awareness: Whether ordinary citizens know about the activities of the local body and feel free to approach it.
Additional Short Answer Questions
Question 1. What is meant by Local Government?
Answer: Local Government is the third tier of government in India, below the Union and the States. It is the system of administration of small, local communities — villages, towns and cities — by their own elected representatives. It looks after subjects of local importance such as drinking water, sanitation, primary education, local roads, public health, street lighting and registration of births and deaths.
Question 2. What is the meaning of “Gram Swaraj”?
Answer: “Gram Swaraj” is a phrase used by Mahatma Gandhi. It means “village self-rule” — the idea that every village should be a self-governing republic that manages its own affairs, plans its own development and is the basic unit of Indian democracy.
Question 3. Who is called the “Father of Local Self-Government in India”?
Answer: Lord Ripon, who was the Viceroy of India from 1880 to 1884, is called the “Father of Local Self-Government in India”. His Resolution of 1882 is considered the Magna Carta of local self-government.
Question 4. Which Article of the Constitution deals with the organisation of village panchayats?
Answer: Article 40 of the Constitution, which is a Directive Principle of State Policy, directs the state to “take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.”
Question 5. Name the committee that recommended the three-tier Panchayati Raj system in India.
Answer: The Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended the three-tier Panchayati Raj system — Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zila Parishad at the district level.
Question 6. Which state was the first to introduce the Panchayati Raj system?
Answer: Rajasthan was the first state to introduce the Panchayati Raj system. It was inaugurated on 2 October 1959 at Nagaur by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Andhra Pradesh followed shortly after.
Question 7. When did the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts come into force?
Answer: The 73rd Amendment came into force on 24 April 1993 and the 74th Amendment came into force on 1 June 1993. National Panchayati Raj Day is celebrated every year on 24 April.
Question 8. What is the Gram Sabha?
Answer: Gram Sabha is the general assembly of all the registered voters of a village or a group of villages within the area of a Gram Panchayat. It is the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system. It approves the annual budget and plan of the Gram Panchayat, selects beneficiaries of welfare schemes and reviews the performance of the panchayat.
Question 9. What is the term of office of a Panchayat?
Answer: Every panchayat at all three levels has a fixed term of five years. If a panchayat is dissolved before the completion of its term, fresh elections must be held within six months from the date of dissolution.
Question 10. What is the State Election Commission?
Answer: The State Election Commission is an independent constitutional body created under Article 243-K. It is headed by a State Election Commissioner appointed by the Governor. It is responsible for the superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to panchayats and municipalities in the state.
Question 11. What is the State Finance Commission?
Answer: The State Finance Commission is a constitutional body set up under Article 243-I by the Governor every five years. It reviews the financial position of the panchayats and municipalities and makes recommendations on the distribution of the net proceeds of taxes, duties, tolls and fees between the state and local bodies, as well as on grants-in-aid.
Question 12. What is the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution?
Answer: The Eleventh Schedule was added by the 73rd Amendment. It lists 29 subjects on which panchayats can be empowered by state legislation — for example, agriculture, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, fisheries, social forestry, drinking water, rural housing, primary and secondary education, public health and family welfare.
Question 13. What is the Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution?
Answer: The Twelfth Schedule was added by the 74th Amendment. It lists 18 subjects on which urban local bodies (municipalities) can be empowered — for example, urban planning, regulation of land-use, water supply, public health, slum improvement, urban poverty alleviation and protection of the environment.
Question 14. Name the three types of urban local bodies under the 74th Amendment.
Answer: The three types of urban local bodies are: (i) Nagar Panchayat — for an area in transition from rural to urban; (ii) Municipal Council — for a smaller urban area; and (iii) Municipal Corporation — for a larger urban area.
Question 15. What is the Sixth Schedule?
Answer: The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution provides for the administration of certain tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram through Autonomous District Councils and Autonomous Regional Councils. These councils have the power to make laws on land, forest, social customs, marriage, inheritance and to manage their own funds.
Question 16. What is the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)?
Answer: The Bodoland Territorial Council was created in 2003 under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution as a self-governing institution for the Bodo people of Assam. It administers the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) and was further strengthened by the Bodo Accord of January 2020. It has powers over 40 subjects including land, forest, agriculture, education, public health and culture.
Question 17. Name some autonomous councils of Assam.
Answer: Assam has several autonomous councils — the Bodoland Territorial Council, the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council and the Dima Hasao Autonomous Council (under the Sixth Schedule), and statutory autonomous councils such as the Mising, Tiwa, Rabha-Hasong, Sonowal Kachari, Thengal Kachari and Deori Autonomous Councils.
Question 18. What is meant by Decentralisation?
Answer: Decentralisation is the process of transferring decision-making powers and resources from the higher levels of government to the lower levels — from the Centre to the States and from the States to local bodies. It is the opposite of centralisation and is one of the basic conditions of a participatory democracy.
Question 19. What was the Ashok Mehta Committee?
Answer: The Ashok Mehta Committee was appointed by the Janata Government in 1977 to review the working of the Panchayati Raj system. It recommended a two-tier system (Mandal Panchayat at the base and Zila Parishad at the district level) instead of the three-tier system, and gave constitutional status to local bodies. Its report formed the background of the later 73rd Amendment.
Question 20. Mention any two important functions of a Gram Panchayat.
Answer: Two important functions of a Gram Panchayat are: (i) provision of basic civic amenities such as drinking water, street lighting, sanitation, drains, village roads and primary education; and (ii) preparation and implementation of plans for the economic development and social justice of the village under the 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule.
Long Answer Questions
Question 1. Trace the historical development of local self-government in India from ancient times to the 73rd Amendment.
Answer: The history of local self-government in India is very old and may be traced through several stages.
(a) Ancient Period: Village panchayats were the basic units of administration since the Vedic age. The Rig Veda mentions sabha and samiti as institutions of public discussion. The Cholas of South India had a remarkable system of village self-government in the 9th-12th centuries, with elected village assemblies known as Ur, Sabha and Mahasabha. Even during the Mughal period, the village remained largely self-sufficient and managed its own affairs.
(b) British Period: The traditional village panchayat declined under British rule due to the introduction of zamindari, a centralised revenue system and the new judicial structure. To fill this gap, Lord Mayo’s Resolution of 1870 began the policy of financial decentralisation, and Lord Ripon’s Resolution of 1882 — the Magna Carta of local self-government — established elected local boards. Later commissions (Royal Commission on Decentralisation 1907, Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935) further extended local bodies, but they remained controlled by British officials.
(c) Constituent Assembly Debate: Mahatma Gandhi pleaded for “Gram Swaraj” as the foundation of independent India. However, the Drafting Committee under Dr B. R. Ambedkar was reluctant to include detailed provisions on village panchayats, as he feared that they could perpetuate caste-based oppression. Finally, panchayati raj was placed in Article 40 as a Directive Principle.
(d) Post-Independence Committees: The Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended the three-tier system; Rajasthan introduced it in 1959. The Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) recommended a two-tier system and constitutional status. The G. V. K. Rao Committee (1985) and the L. M. Singhvi Committee (1986) further pushed the case for constitutional recognition.
(e) Constitutional Recognition: Acting on these recommendations, Parliament passed the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 for rural areas and the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 for urban areas. Both came into force in 1993. Local self-government thus completed its journey from ancient village assemblies to a constitutionally protected third tier of Indian democracy.
Question 2. Compare the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.
Answer: The 73rd and 74th Amendments are twin amendments passed in the same year (1992) for rural and urban local government respectively. The main similarities and differences are shown below.
| Point of Comparison | 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 | 74th Amendment Act, 1992 |
|---|---|---|
| Area covered | Rural areas — villages and districts. | Urban areas — towns and cities. |
| Part / Articles | Part IX, Articles 243 to 243-O. | Part IX-A, Articles 243-P to 243-ZG. |
| Schedule added | Eleventh Schedule — 29 subjects. | Twelfth Schedule — 18 subjects. |
| Three-tier structure | Gram Panchayat (village), Panchayat Samiti (block), Zila Parishad (district). | Nagar Panchayat (transitional area), Municipal Council (small urban area), Municipal Corporation (large urban area). |
| Foundation body | Gram Sabha at the village level. | Wards Committees in municipalities with population of 3 lakh or more. |
| Term | Five years; fresh elections within six months if dissolved. | Five years; fresh elections within six months if dissolved. |
| Reservations | SCs / STs in proportion to population, one-third for women. | Same as 73rd Amendment. |
| Election authority | State Election Commission. | State Election Commission. |
| Finance | State Finance Commission every five years. | State Finance Commission every five years. |
| Came into force | 24 April 1993. | 1 June 1993. |
| Special provision | PESA Act 1996 extends panchayats to Scheduled Areas. | District Planning Committee and Metropolitan Planning Committee. |
Although the two amendments are different in their area of operation, their core philosophy is the same — to give constitutional status, regular elections, social inclusion, financial autonomy and democratic accountability to local government.
Question 3. Discuss the structure and functions of the three-tier Panchayati Raj system in India.
Answer: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 introduced a uniform three-tier Panchayati Raj system in all states with a population above 20 lakh.
(i) Gram Panchayat (Village Level):
- Lowest unit, set up for one or more revenue villages.
- Members (Panchas) are directly elected by the Gram Sabha for five years.
- The chairperson is called the Sarpanch / Pradhan / President.
- Functions: drinking water, sanitation, street lighting, village roads, primary schools, dispensaries, registration of births and deaths, maintenance of records, implementation of welfare schemes, and the preparation of the annual plan and budget for approval by the Gram Sabha.
(ii) Panchayat Samiti / Block Panchayat (Intermediate Level):
- Set up at the community development block level.
- Members are directly elected; chairpersons of Gram Panchayats and MLAs / MPs of the area are usually ex-officio members.
- The chairperson is called the Pramukh / Block President.
- Functions: coordination among Gram Panchayats; implementation of block-level development schemes in agriculture, animal husbandry, cottage industries, primary health, social welfare; supervision over Gram Panchayats; channelling state funds to the village level.
(iii) Zila Parishad (District Level):
- Apex body of the Panchayati Raj system at the district level.
- Members are directly elected from territorial constituencies; MPs, MLAs of the district and Panchayat Samiti chairpersons may be members.
- The chairperson is called the Adhyaksha / President.
- Functions: overall planning and supervision of district development; coordination among Panchayat Samitis; running of district hospitals, secondary schools and major roads; advising state government on rural development; distribution of grants among Panchayat Samitis.
This three-tier structure ensures that planning and implementation are spread across all levels of rural India and that grass-roots democracy reaches every village.
Question 4. Describe the structure of urban local bodies under the 74th Amendment.
Answer: The 74th Amendment Act, 1992 created a uniform structure for urban local government across India. According to Article 243-Q, every state must constitute three types of municipalities depending on the size and character of the urban area:
- Nagar Panchayat: For an area in transition from rural to urban (i.e. a small town gradually becoming urban).
- Municipal Council: For a smaller urban area with a population usually between 25,000 and one lakh.
- Municipal Corporation: For a large urban area such as a metropolitan city — for example, the Guwahati Municipal Corporation in Assam.
Members: All members are directly elected by the people of the wards. The chairperson (Mayor / President) may be elected directly or indirectly, as decided by the state legislature. The term of every municipality is five years.
Wards Committees: Article 243-S provides for Wards Committees in every municipality with a population of three lakh or more, to ensure people’s participation at the neighbourhood level.
District Planning Committee (Article 243-ZD) and Metropolitan Planning Committee (Article 243-ZE) are constituted to consolidate the development plans prepared by the panchayats and the municipalities.
Functions: Urban local bodies are entrusted with the 18 subjects of the Twelfth Schedule, including urban planning, regulation of land use, planning for economic and social development, water supply, public health and sanitation, solid-waste management, fire services, urban forestry, slum improvement, urban poverty alleviation, urban amenities (parks, playgrounds), promotion of cultural and educational aspects, burials and cremations, cattle pounds, registration of births and deaths, public conveniences (street lighting, parking, bus stops), and regulation of slaughter-houses.
Question 5. Compare the Eleventh Schedule and the Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution.
Answer: The Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules were added by the 73rd and 74th Amendments respectively to specify the subjects on which local bodies can be empowered.
| Point | Eleventh Schedule | Twelfth Schedule |
|---|---|---|
| Added by | 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992. | 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992. |
| Refers to | Article 243-G — powers of panchayats. | Article 243-W — powers of municipalities. |
| Number of subjects | 29 subjects. | 18 subjects. |
| Area covered | Rural local bodies (villages). | Urban local bodies (towns and cities). |
| Examples of subjects | Agriculture, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, fisheries, social forestry, drinking water, rural housing, primary and secondary education, public health, family welfare, women and child development. | Urban planning, regulation of land-use, water supply, public health, sanitation, slum improvement, urban poverty alleviation, fire services, urban amenities, protection of environment, burials and cremation grounds. |
| Nature of list | Indicative — depends on transfer by state legislation. | Indicative — depends on transfer by state legislation. |
Question 6. Explain the importance of local government in a democracy.
Answer: Local government is the foundation of a vibrant democracy. Its importance can be explained through the following points:
- Closest to the people: It deals with the day-to-day problems of citizens — water, sanitation, schools, dispensaries, roads — which the Centre and the State are too distant to handle directly.
- Participatory democracy: It enables ordinary citizens to take part in governance through Gram Sabhas, Wards Committees and direct elections.
- Training in citizenship: Local bodies act as nurseries of leadership, especially for women, SCs, STs and OBCs.
- Better planning: Local people understand local needs best, so plans prepared at the local level are realistic and acceptable.
- Reduces burden on higher governments: The Centre and States can concentrate on national and state issues.
- Promotes social justice: Reservations bring marginalised groups into power.
- Quick response: Local representatives can respond faster to disasters, festivals, epidemics and emergencies.
- Accountability: Voters know their representatives personally and can demand accountability easily.
- Cost-effective administration: Local management of resources reduces wastage and corruption.
- Strengthens national unity: By involving citizens at every level, local government creates a sense of shared belonging to the larger democracy.
Question 7. Discuss the special provisions for local government in the North-Eastern states under the Sixth Schedule.
Answer: The North-East of India has a unique social and cultural composition, with a large tribal population having distinct customs, languages and land tenure systems. The Constitution recognises this fact and provides special arrangements for self-government in the tribal areas through the Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)).
- The Sixth Schedule applies to the tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
- It provides for the creation of Autonomous District Councils and Autonomous Regional Councils.
- These councils have legislative, executive, judicial and financial powers.
- They can make laws on land, forests, water (other than major rivers), social customs, marriage, inheritance, and the inheritance of property.
- They have their own funds, can levy certain taxes and receive grants from the Consolidated Fund of India.
- The 73rd and 74th Amendments do not automatically apply to Sixth Schedule areas; the provisions of the Sixth Schedule prevail.
- In Assam, the major Sixth Schedule councils are the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC), the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council and the Dima Hasao Autonomous Council.
- Apart from the Sixth Schedule councils, Assam has set up several statutory autonomous councils for the Mising, Tiwa, Rabha-Hasong, Sonowal Kachari, Thengal Kachari and Deori communities under separate state Acts.
- The PESA Act of 1996 (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas Act) extends a modified form of the panchayat system to the Scheduled Areas of nine other states.
These special provisions ensure that the cultural identity and traditional self-governing institutions of the tribal communities are protected within the framework of the Indian Constitution.
Question 8. Explain the achievements and shortcomings of the Panchayati Raj system in India after the 73rd Amendment.
Answer: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 has been one of the most far-reaching constitutional reforms in independent India.
Achievements:
- Constitutional status and uniform three-tier structure across the country.
- Regular five-yearly elections under an independent State Election Commission.
- More than 30 lakh elected representatives, of whom over 14 lakh are women — the largest political base of women in any country.
- Reservation has empowered SCs, STs, OBCs and women, creating a new political leadership at the grass-roots.
- People’s participation has improved through the Gram Sabha and the social audit.
- Several centrally sponsored schemes — MGNREGA, Swachh Bharat Mission, PMAY-G, Jal Jeevan Mission — are implemented through panchayats.
- States like Kerala, Karnataka, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh have devolved real powers and finances, leading to remarkable improvement in services.
Shortcomings:
- Most states have not transferred all 29 subjects of the Eleventh Schedule along with funds and functionaries.
- Heavy financial dependence on the state government; recommendations of State Finance Commissions are often ignored.
- “Sarpanch Pati” syndrome — male relatives operating in the name of elected women.
- Caste-based dominance of upper classes in many regions.
- Bureaucratic interference by Block Development Officers and District Collectors.
- Political party rivalries dividing village communities.
- Low awareness of rights and duties among voters.
- Inadequate training and infrastructure for elected members.
Despite these limitations, the 73rd Amendment has set in motion a quiet revolution in Indian democracy, and continued reform is required to make it truly effective.
Three-Tier Panchayati Raj System (At a Glance)
| Tier | Body | Level | Chairperson | Members | Term |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First (Lowest) | Gram Panchayat | Village (one or more revenue villages) | Sarpanch / Pradhan / President | Directly elected from wards within the village; foundation body is Gram Sabha (all voters). | 5 years |
| Second (Intermediate) | Panchayat Samiti / Block Panchayat / Anchalik Panchayat | Community Development Block | Pramukh / Block President | Directly elected; chairpersons of Gram Panchayats are usually ex-officio members. | 5 years |
| Third (Highest) | Zila Parishad / Zila Panchayat | District | Adhyaksha / President | Directly elected from territorial constituencies; MPs, MLAs of the district and Panchayat Samiti chairpersons are members. | 5 years |
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Which Constitutional Amendment gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj?
(a) 71st Amendment
(b) 72nd Amendment
(c) 73rd Amendment
(d) 74th Amendment
Answer: (c) 73rd Amendment.
2. The 74th Amendment Act deals with —
(a) Rural local government
(b) Urban local government
(c) Tribal autonomous councils
(d) State Election Commission
Answer: (b) Urban local government.
3. The 73rd Amendment Act came into force on —
(a) 26 January 1993
(b) 24 April 1993
(c) 1 June 1993
(d) 15 August 1992
Answer: (b) 24 April 1993.
4. The Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution lists —
(a) 18 subjects
(b) 22 subjects
(c) 29 subjects
(d) 30 subjects
Answer: (c) 29 subjects.
5. The Twelfth Schedule contains —
(a) 18 subjects
(b) 21 subjects
(c) 24 subjects
(d) 29 subjects
Answer: (a) 18 subjects.
6. Who is known as the “Father of Local Self-Government in India”?
(a) Lord Curzon
(b) Lord Mayo
(c) Lord Ripon
(d) Lord Dalhousie
Answer: (c) Lord Ripon.
7. Which committee recommended the three-tier Panchayati Raj system?
(a) Ashok Mehta Committee
(b) Balwantrai Mehta Committee
(c) L. M. Singhvi Committee
(d) G. V. K. Rao Committee
Answer: (b) Balwantrai Mehta Committee.
8. Which state was the first to introduce Panchayati Raj?
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Maharashtra
(c) Rajasthan
(d) Gujarat
Answer: (c) Rajasthan.
9. The Panchayati Raj system in Rajasthan was inaugurated by —
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Dr B. R. Ambedkar
(c) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
(d) Sardar Patel
Answer: (c) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.
10. The Gram Sabha consists of —
(a) Members of the Gram Panchayat only
(b) All registered voters of a village
(c) Only adult males of a village
(d) Government officials of the village
Answer: (b) All registered voters of a village.
11. The term of a panchayat is —
(a) 3 years
(b) 4 years
(c) 5 years
(d) 6 years
Answer: (c) 5 years.
12. The minimum reservation of seats for women in panchayats under the 73rd Amendment is —
(a) One-fourth
(b) One-third
(c) One-half
(d) Two-thirds
Answer: (b) One-third.
13. Which body conducts the elections to panchayats and municipalities?
(a) Election Commission of India
(b) State Election Commission
(c) District Magistrate
(d) Governor
Answer: (b) State Election Commission.
14. The State Finance Commission is constituted every —
(a) 3 years
(b) 4 years
(c) 5 years
(d) 10 years
Answer: (c) 5 years.
15. Article 40 of the Constitution refers to —
(a) Fundamental Rights
(b) Organisation of village panchayats
(c) Union-State relations
(d) Emergency provisions
Answer: (b) Organisation of village panchayats.
16. The intermediate level in the Panchayati Raj system is —
(a) Gram Panchayat
(b) Panchayat Samiti
(c) Zila Parishad
(d) Gram Sabha
Answer: (b) Panchayat Samiti.
17. The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution applies to —
(a) All states of India
(b) Tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
(c) Only Union Territories
(d) Only Hindi-speaking states
Answer: (b) Tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
18. The Bodoland Territorial Council was created in —
(a) 1993
(b) 1996
(c) 2000
(d) 2003
Answer: (d) 2003.
19. The Mayor is the chairperson of —
(a) Nagar Panchayat
(b) Municipal Council
(c) Municipal Corporation
(d) Zila Parishad
Answer: (c) Municipal Corporation.
20. The Nagar Panchayat is the urban local body for —
(a) A metropolitan city
(b) A small town
(c) An area in transition from rural to urban
(d) A district headquarters
Answer: (c) An area in transition from rural to urban.
21. Which committee recommended the two-tier system and constitutional status for local government?
(a) Balwantrai Mehta Committee
(b) Ashok Mehta Committee
(c) Sarkaria Commission
(d) Punchhi Commission
Answer: (b) Ashok Mehta Committee.
22. PESA Act stands for —
(a) Provision of Education in Scheduled Areas
(b) Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas
(c) Public Election in Special Areas
(d) Power to Elected Sabhas Act
Answer: (b) Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas.
23. National Panchayati Raj Day is observed on —
(a) 1 May
(b) 24 April
(c) 5 September
(d) 14 November
Answer: (b) 24 April.
24. The District Planning Committee is provided under —
(a) Article 243-A
(b) Article 243-G
(c) Article 243-ZD
(d) Article 243-ZE
Answer: (c) Article 243-ZD.
25. The Wards Committee is mandatory in a municipality with a population of —
(a) 50,000 or more
(b) 1 lakh or more
(c) 2 lakh or more
(d) 3 lakh or more
Answer: (d) 3 lakh or more.
Key Terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Local Government | The third tier of government, dealing with local affairs of villages, towns and cities through elected representatives. |
| Gram Swaraj | Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of village self-rule — making each village a self-governing republic. |
| Panchayati Raj | The system of rural local self-government in India based on the three-tier structure of Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad. |
| Gram Sabha | Assembly of all registered voters of a village; the foundation body of Panchayati Raj. |
| Gram Panchayat | Elected body of representatives at the village level, headed by the Sarpanch. |
| Panchayat Samiti | Block-level Panchayati Raj body that coordinates Gram Panchayats; headed by the Pramukh. |
| Zila Parishad | District-level Panchayati Raj body; headed by the Adhyaksha. |
| 73rd Amendment | Constitutional Amendment of 1992 that gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj. |
| 74th Amendment | Constitutional Amendment of 1992 that gave constitutional status to urban local bodies (municipalities). |
| Eleventh Schedule | List of 29 subjects that may be transferred to panchayats; added by the 73rd Amendment. |
| Twelfth Schedule | List of 18 subjects that may be transferred to municipalities; added by the 74th Amendment. |
| State Election Commission | Constitutional body that conducts elections to all panchayats and municipalities in a state. |
| State Finance Commission | Constitutional body set up every five years to recommend devolution of finances to local bodies. |
| Decentralisation | Transfer of decision-making power and resources from higher levels to lower levels of government. |
| Reservation | Setting aside of seats in local bodies for SCs, STs and women to ensure their representation. |
| Sixth Schedule | Provisions for self-government of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram through Autonomous District Councils. |
| Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) | Autonomous Council under the Sixth Schedule for the Bodo people of Assam, created in 2003 and strengthened by the 2020 Bodo Accord. |
| Nagar Panchayat | Urban local body for an area in transition from rural to urban. |
| Municipal Council | Urban local body for a smaller urban area. |
| Municipal Corporation | Urban local body for a large city, headed by a Mayor. |
| Wards Committee | Sub-committee of a municipality at the neighbourhood level for people’s participation. |
| PESA Act | Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas Act, 1996 — extends a modified panchayat system to Scheduled Areas of nine states. |
| Lord Ripon | Viceroy of India (1880-84); his Resolution of 1882 is the Magna Carta of local self-government in India. |
| Balwantrai Mehta Committee | Committee (1957) that recommended the three-tier Panchayati Raj system. |
| Ashok Mehta Committee | Committee (1977) that recommended a two-tier system and constitutional status for panchayats. |
This completes the detailed solution for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 — Local Governments. Visit HSLC Guru for more ASSEB HS First Year Political Science chapter notes, NCERT solutions and important questions for the HS Final Examination.