Class 11 Political Science Chapter 3 — Election and Representation (System of Representational Democracy)
Welcome to HSLC Guru. This page provides complete ASSEB Class 11 Political Science (Indian Constitution at Work) Chapter 3 — Election and Representation — solutions. The chapter explains how representative democracy works in India, the difference between First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) and Proportional Representation (PR), why India adopted FPTP, the system of reservation of seats for SC/ST, the composition and powers of the Election Commission of India (ECI), the importance of universal adult franchise, and recent electoral reforms. All NCERT exercise questions, additional short and long-answer questions, and multiple-choice questions are included to help HS 1st Year (ASSEB) students prepare thoroughly for the final examination.
Summary (English)
Representative democracy means that the people do not govern themselves directly; instead they elect their representatives, who then govern on their behalf. Elections are therefore the heart of democracy. Without free, fair, regular and competitive elections, no government can claim to be democratic. The Indian Constitution establishes a system of representational democracy in which all adult citizens — irrespective of caste, religion, sex, education or property — have the right to vote. This is called universal adult franchise. The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment in 1989.
There are two major methods of conducting elections — First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) and Proportional Representation (PR). In FPTP, the country is divided into small geographical units called constituencies; each constituency elects one representative; the candidate who secures the largest number of votes (a plurality, not necessarily a majority) is declared elected. India has adopted FPTP for elections to the Lok Sabha and to the State Legislative Assemblies. In PR, the entire country (or a large region) is treated as a single constituency, and political parties get seats in the legislature in proportion to the percentage of votes each party receives. Israel, Netherlands and many other European countries follow PR. India uses a limited form of PR — the Single Transferable Vote system — for electing the President, Vice-President, members of the Rajya Sabha and members of the State Legislative Councils.
The framers of the Indian Constitution chose FPTP because it is simple to operate and understand, encourages voters to vote for a candidate rather than only a party, gives clear identification of the local representative, and usually produces a stable government with a clear majority. However, FPTP can produce a wide gap between the percentage of votes received and the percentage of seats won by a party. To ensure adequate representation of weaker sections, the Constitution provides for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in the Lok Sabha and in State Legislative Assemblies. In a reserved constituency every voter votes, but only a candidate belonging to the reserved community can contest. This is different from a separate electorate (which existed under British rule) where only members of the community vote for their own representative — a system rejected by the Constituent Assembly because it harmed national integration.
To conduct elections impartially, the Constitution establishes an independent Election Commission of India (ECI) under Article 324. The ECI consists of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such other Election Commissioners as the President may from time to time fix; at present it is a three-member body — one CEC and two ECs. They are appointed by the President for a term of six years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier. The CEC can be removed only through the same procedure used for removing a judge of the Supreme Court (impeachment). The ECI prepares electoral rolls, conducts elections to Parliament, State Legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President, supervises the polling process, enforces the Model Code of Conduct, recognises political parties, allots election symbols, and decides on disputes regarding recognition. Major electoral reforms include lowering of the voting age, introduction of EVMs and VVPATs, NOTA option, online voter registration, expenditure ceilings, disqualification on conviction, and stricter affidavit and disclosure rules. Together, the ECI and these reforms protect the democratic character of the Indian republic.
সাৰাংশ (Assamese)
প্ৰতিনিধিত্বমূলক গণতন্ত্ৰ মানে — জনগণে নিজে শাসন নকৰে, কিন্তু তেওঁলোকে নিৰ্বাচনৰ জৰিয়তে নিজৰ প্ৰতিনিধি বাছি লয় আৰু সেই প্ৰতিনিধিসকলে শাসন চলায়। সেইবাবে নিৰ্বাচন গণতন্ত্ৰৰ প্ৰাণ। মুক্ত, ন্যায্য, নিয়মীয়া আৰু প্ৰতিযোগিতামূলক নিৰ্বাচন নহ’লে কোনো চৰকাৰক গণতান্ত্ৰিক বুলি ক’ব নোৱাৰি। ভাৰতীয় সংবিধানে এনে এক প্ৰতিনিধিত্বমূলক গণতন্ত্ৰ স্থাপন কৰিছে য’ত প্ৰত্যেক পূৰ্ণবয়স্ক নাগৰিকে — জাতি, ধৰ্ম, লিংগ, শিক্ষা বা সম্পত্তিৰ ভেদাভেদ নকৰাকৈ — ভোটদানৰ অধিকাৰ পায়। ইয়াকে সাৰ্বজনীন প্ৰাপ্তবয়স্ক ভোটাধিকাৰ বোলে। ১৯৮৯ চনৰ ৬১ তম সাংবিধানিক সংশোধনীৰ দ্বাৰা ভোটদানৰ বয়স ২১ ৰ পৰা ১৮ লৈ হ্ৰাস কৰা হয়।
নিৰ্বাচন পদ্ধতি দুধৰণৰ — প্ৰথম-অধিক-ভোটপ্ৰাপ্ত (FPTP) আৰু আনুপাতিক প্ৰতিনিধিত্ব (PR)। FPTP ত গোটেই দেশখনক সৰু সৰু নিৰ্বাচনী কেন্দ্ৰত (constituency) ভাগ কৰি প্ৰতিটো কেন্দ্ৰৰ পৰা এজন প্ৰতিনিধি নিৰ্বাচিত কৰা হয়; যিজন প্ৰাৰ্থীয়ে আটাইতকৈ বেছি ভোট পায় তেওঁ জয়ী হয় (অৰ্ধতকৈ অধিক হ’ব নালাগে)। ভাৰতে লোকসভা আৰু ৰাজ্যিক বিধানসভাৰ নিৰ্বাচনত FPTP ব্যৱহাৰ কৰে। PR ত ৰাজনৈতিক দলে যিমান শতাংশ ভোট পায়, প্ৰায় সিমান শতাংশ আসন পায়। ভাৰতে ৰাষ্ট্ৰপতি, উপৰাষ্ট্ৰপতি, ৰাজ্যসভা আৰু বিধান পৰিষদৰ নিৰ্বাচনত PR ৰ এক সীমিত ৰূপ — একক হস্তান্তৰযোগ্য ভোট পদ্ধতি — ব্যৱহাৰ কৰে।
ভাৰতে FPTP গ্ৰহণ কৰিছিল কাৰণ ই সহজ-সৰল, ভোটাৰে দলৰ লগতে প্ৰাৰ্থীক চিনাৰ সুবিধা পায়, স্থানীয় প্ৰতিনিধিৰ স্পষ্ট দায়বদ্ধতা থাকে আৰু সাধাৰণতে স্থিৰ চৰকাৰ গঠন হয়। দুৰ্বল শ্ৰেণীৰ প্ৰতিনিধিত্ব নিশ্চিত কৰিবলৈ সংবিধানে অনুসূচিত জাতি (SC) আৰু অনুসূচিত জনজাতি (ST)ৰ বাবে আসন সংৰক্ষণৰ ব্যৱস্থা কৰিছে। সংৰক্ষিত কেন্দ্ৰত সকলো ভোটাৰে ভোট দিয়ে কিন্তু প্ৰাৰ্থী কেৱল সংৰক্ষিত শ্ৰেণীৰ পৰাহে হ’ব পাৰে — ই পৃথক নিৰ্বাচনমণ্ডল (separate electorate)তকৈ পৃথক। অনুচ্ছেদ ৩২৪ৰ অনুসৰি স্থাপিত স্বতন্ত্ৰ ভাৰতীয় নিৰ্বাচন আয়োগ (ECI) এ নিৰ্বাচন পৰিচালনা কৰে — এজন মুখ্য নিৰ্বাচন আয়ুক্ত আৰু দুজন আয়ুক্তৰে গঠিত। তেওঁলোকৰ কাৰ্যকাল ছবছৰ বা ৬৫ বছৰ বয়স। সৰ্বোচ্চ ন্যায়ালয়ৰ ন্যায়াধীশৰ দৰে অভিযোগৰ পদ্ধতিৰ দ্বাৰাহে মুখ্য নিৰ্বাচন আয়ুক্তক পদচ্যুত কৰিব পাৰি। ভোটাৰ তালিকা প্ৰস্তুত কৰা, নিৰ্বাচন পৰিচালনা কৰা, আদৰ্শ আচৰণবিধি প্ৰয়োগ কৰা, ৰাজনৈতিক দলৰ স্বীকৃতি দিয়া আৰু প্ৰতীক বাছনি ECI ৰ মূল কৰ্তব্য। EVM-VVPAT, NOTA বিকল্প, অনলাইন ভোটাৰ পঞ্জীয়ন, ব্যয়ৰ সীমা ইত্যাদি বৰ্তমানৰ গুৰুত্বপূৰ্ণ নিৰ্বাচনী সংস্কাৰ।
NCERT Textbook Questions and Answers
1. Which of the following resembles most a direct democracy?
(a) Discussions in a family meeting
(b) Election of the class monitor
(c) Choice of a candidate by a political party
(d) Decisions taken by the Gram Sabha
(e) Opinion polls conducted by the news channels
Answer: (d) Decisions taken by the Gram Sabha resembles most a direct democracy. In a Gram Sabha, all adult voters of the village participate directly in decision-making rather than through elected representatives, which is the essence of direct democracy.
2. Which of the following tasks are not performed by the Election Commission?
(a) Preparing the electoral rolls
(b) Nominating the candidates
(c) Setting up polling booths
(d) Implementing the model code of conduct
(e) Supervising the Panchayat elections
Answer: (b) Nominating the candidates and (e) Supervising the Panchayat elections are not performed by the Election Commission of India. Candidates are nominated by political parties or stand as independents; Panchayat and Municipal elections are conducted by the State Election Commission, not the ECI.
3. Which of the following is common to the elections to the Lok Sabha and to the Rajya Sabha?
(a) Every citizen above the age of 18 is an eligible voter
(b) Voter ranks the candidates in order of preference
(c) Every vote has equal value
(d) Parties can issue whip to its members on voting
Answer: (d) Parties can issue whip to its members on voting is common to both. The other options differ — Lok Sabha is elected directly by all adult citizens (FPTP), whereas Rajya Sabha is elected indirectly by elected MLAs through Single Transferable Vote where votes have weighted, not equal, value.
4. In a First Past the Post system that candidate is declared winner who:
(a) Secures the largest number of postal ballots
(b) Belongs to the party that has highest number of votes in the country
(c) Has more votes than any other candidate in the constituency
(d) Attains first position by securing more than 50% votes
Answer: (c) Has more votes than any other candidate in the constituency. FPTP requires only a plurality, not a majority — the candidate who polls more votes than any other rival in that constituency is declared elected, even if the total is less than 50%.
5. What is the difference between the system of reservation of constituencies and the system of separate electorate? Why did the Constitution makers reject the latter?
Answer: In the system of reservation of constituencies, certain constituencies are reserved for SCs/STs. In a reserved constituency, every voter (irrespective of caste) casts his/her vote, but only a candidate belonging to that reserved community is allowed to contest. The elected representative thus belongs to the SC/ST community but is chosen by the entire electorate of the constituency.
In the system of separate electorate, which existed under British rule (e.g. for Muslims after 1909), only voters belonging to that community were allowed to vote in that constituency, and only candidates from the same community could contest. The representative was therefore elected by the community alone.
The Constituent Assembly rejected separate electorates because: (i) they sharpened communal divisions and harmed national integration; (ii) the elected member became answerable only to a section of voters and not to the constituency as a whole; (iii) such representatives could not adequately represent the larger national interest; (iv) the bitter experience of the partition of India was directly linked to the politics of separate electorates introduced by the British. Reservation of constituencies, on the other hand, ensures representation of weaker sections without dividing voters along communal lines.
6. Which of the following statements are incorrect? Identify and correct them.
(a) FPTP is the most simple method of election.
(b) In a Proportional Representation system, every vote has equal value.
(c) The First Past the Post system is followed in India for all kinds of elections.
(d) The Constitution of India makes a provision for setting up of a separate Election Commission for each State.
Answer:
- (a) Correct. FPTP is indeed the simplest method.
- (b) Correct. In PR, every vote has equal value as parties are awarded seats in proportion to votes received.
- (c) Incorrect. India does not follow FPTP for all elections. FPTP is used only for the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies. The President, the Vice-President, members of the Rajya Sabha and members of the State Legislative Councils are elected by the system of Proportional Representation through Single Transferable Vote.
- (d) Incorrect. The Constitution does not provide for a separate Election Commission for each State for parliamentary or assembly elections. Article 324 establishes one Election Commission of India for the entire country. However, the 73rd and 74th Amendments provide for State Election Commissions only for Panchayat and Municipal elections.
7. Indian electoral system aims at ensuring representation to socially disadvantaged groups. However, we have not so far thought about giving some special representation to women in the legislatures. Do you think that there should be a special provision for the representation of women in the Indian legislature? Give arguments for or against this position.
Answer: Yes, there should be a special provision for representation of women in the Indian legislatures. Arguments in favour: (i) Women constitute almost half of India’s population but their representation in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies has historically been below 15%, far less than their share. (ii) Genuine equality cannot be achieved without proportional participation in lawmaking. (iii) The 73rd and 74th Amendments already reserve one-third seats for women in Panchayats and Municipalities and have visibly empowered grassroots women leaders. (iv) Issues affecting women — domestic violence, maternity, childcare, education — are better articulated when women themselves frame the laws. (v) The Women’s Reservation Act (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023) reserving 33% seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies acknowledges this need. Arguments against: a few critics argue that reservation may benefit elite women rather than the disadvantaged ones, and that political parties should give more tickets to women voluntarily rather than through legislation. On balance the argument in favour is stronger and reservation is necessary to overcome existing structural inequality.
8. Match the following:
| Wish of voter | Best suited system |
|---|---|
| (a) Voters should have a clear knowledge of who their representative is so that they can hold him/her personally accountable | FPTP |
| (b) Linguistic and other minorities should feel they have a fair representation | Proportional Representation |
| (c) There should be no discrepancy between votes received and seats won by a party | Proportional Representation |
| (d) People should be able to elect a good candidate even if they do not like his/her political party | FPTP |
9. A former Chief Election Commissioner joined a political party and contested elections. There are various views on this issue. One view is that a former Election Commissioner is an independent citizen and has a right to join any political party and to contest elections. According to the other view, leaving open the possibility of taking up political career after retirement may adversely affect the impartiality of the Election Commissioner. In view of these positions, what is your opinion in this regard?
Answer: The second view is more sound. The Election Commission must not only be impartial but also appear to be impartial. If a serving Chief Election Commissioner can hope for a political career immediately after retirement, his/her decisions during tenure may be coloured by a desire to please a particular political party. This will erode public confidence in the fairness of elections. Although a retired Election Commissioner is, in law, a free citizen, in democratic spirit there should be a clear cooling-off period or a complete bar on contesting elections or accepting political appointments. Many countries follow such a rule. Therefore, by suitable legislation or convention, former Election Commissioners should be debarred from joining political parties or contesting elections to safeguard the credibility of the Election Commission.
10. “Indian democracy is now ready to shift from a system of First Past the Post to Proportional Representation.” Do you agree with this statement? Give your arguments for or against.
Answer: I do not fully agree with the statement. Although PR has many advantages, India is not yet ready to shift completely to it. Arguments against the shift: (i) FPTP has worked well for over seven decades and has produced stable governments; (ii) it is simple — the average Indian voter understands “vote for one candidate”; (iii) it gives a clear local representative who is directly accountable; (iv) PR usually yields multi-party hung parliaments and unstable coalition governments; (v) PR strengthens central party leadership over the candidate and weakens the voter–representative link; (vi) most Indian voters are still attached to local rather than national party identification. Arguments in favour of a shift: (i) FPTP can give a party a large majority of seats with only a minority of votes; (ii) small parties and minorities are under-represented; (iii) PR gives every vote equal weight. Conclusion: rather than a complete shift, India could introduce limited reforms — for example a partial top-up PR list system or compulsory minimum vote share for seat allocation — while retaining FPTP for direct elections.
Additional Short Answer Questions
1. What is meant by representative democracy?
Answer: Representative democracy is a system in which people do not govern themselves directly but elect representatives at regular intervals through free and fair elections; these representatives form the government and run the country on behalf of the people.
2. What is universal adult franchise?
Answer: Universal adult franchise means that every adult citizen of the country has the right to vote in elections without any discrimination based on caste, religion, language, sex, education, income or property. In India, every citizen aged 18 years or above can vote.
3. What is a constituency?
Answer: A constituency is a geographical area into which a country or state is divided for the purpose of elections. Each constituency elects one representative to the legislature. India is divided into 543 Lok Sabha constituencies.
4. What is a reserved constituency?
Answer: A reserved constituency is one where only candidates belonging to a specific category — Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe — can contest, although all voters of the constituency, irrespective of caste, can vote in it.
5. What is the FPTP system?
Answer: First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) is an electoral system in which the country is divided into territorial constituencies; voters cast a single vote for a candidate; and the candidate who secures the largest number of votes (a plurality) in a constituency is declared elected.
6. What is Proportional Representation (PR)?
Answer: Proportional Representation is an electoral system in which seats in the legislature are allotted to political parties in proportion to the percentage of votes each party receives. It ensures that the share of seats closely matches the share of votes.
7. Mention any two countries that follow Proportional Representation.
Answer: Israel and the Netherlands follow Proportional Representation. Other examples include Argentina, Belgium and Sri Lanka.
8. What is the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system?
Answer: Single Transferable Vote is a form of Proportional Representation in which voters rank candidates in order of preference (1, 2, 3 …). A candidate must obtain a minimum quota of first-preference votes to get elected. Surplus votes of winners and the votes of eliminated candidates are transferred to remaining candidates according to subsequent preferences. India uses STV for elections to the Rajya Sabha, the President and the Vice-President.
9. Who elects the President of India?
Answer: The President of India is elected indirectly by an electoral college comprising the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of all States and the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry, through Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote.
10. How are members of the Rajya Sabha elected?
Answer: Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly by the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies through Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote. The number of seats from each state is roughly proportional to its population.
11. What is the Election Commission of India?
Answer: The Election Commission of India is an independent constitutional body established under Article 324 of the Constitution of India. It is responsible for the superintendence, direction and control of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President.
12. Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioner?
Answer: The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are appointed by the President of India.
13. What is the term of the Chief Election Commissioner?
Answer: The Chief Election Commissioner holds office for a term of six years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
14. How can the Chief Election Commissioner be removed?
Answer: The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court — that is, on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity, by a resolution passed by both Houses of Parliament with a special majority and presented to the President.
15. What is the Model Code of Conduct?
Answer: The Model Code of Conduct is a set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission of India that govern the conduct of political parties and candidates during elections. It comes into force the moment elections are announced and lasts till the results are declared.
16. What is meant by NOTA?
Answer: NOTA stands for “None Of The Above”. It is an option on the EVM that allows a voter to officially register a vote of rejection if he/she does not wish to vote for any of the candidates contesting from the constituency. It was introduced by the Supreme Court order in 2013.
17. What is an EVM?
Answer: An Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) is a device used to record votes electronically instead of paper ballots. It was first introduced in India in 1982 in Kerala. EVMs are now used in all elections to Parliament and State Assemblies.
18. What is VVPAT?
Answer: Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is a paper slip generated by the EVM containing the name and symbol of the candidate the voter has voted for. It allows the voter to verify that his/her vote has been correctly recorded and provides a verifiable trail.
19. What is the minimum age for voting in India?
Answer: The minimum age for voting in India is 18 years. It was reduced from 21 to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1989.
20. Define a by-election.
Answer: A by-election is an election held to fill a single vacancy in the legislature caused by the death, resignation or disqualification of a sitting member, in between general elections.
Long Answer Questions
1. Compare the First-Past-the-Post system and the Proportional Representation system. Why did India adopt FPTP?
Answer: FPTP and PR are the two major electoral systems followed in modern democracies.
| Point | First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) | Proportional Representation (PR) |
|---|---|---|
| Constituency | Country divided into many small constituencies, each electing one representative | Whole country / large region treated as a single constituency |
| Vote | Voter votes for a candidate | Voter votes for a party (party-list PR) or ranks candidates (STV) |
| Winner | Candidate with most votes wins, even if less than 50% | Parties win seats in proportion to votes received |
| Vote-seat ratio | Often a wide gap (a party may win majority seats with minority votes) | Seats almost match vote share |
| Government | Generally produces stable single-party government | Often produces coalition governments |
| Smaller parties | Under-represented | Get fair share of seats |
| Voter knowledge | Voter knows the candidate personally | Voter often knows only the party |
| Examples | India, UK, USA, Canada | Israel, Netherlands, Sri Lanka |
Why India adopted FPTP: (i) It is simple to operate and easily understood by an electorate with low literacy levels; (ii) gives clear identification of the local representative; (iii) generally produces stable governments with a clear majority; (iv) encourages voters to choose a candidate based on personal merit, not just party; (v) suitable for a vast and diverse country where regional/local representation is essential; (vi) PR was considered too complicated for a country newly emerging into electoral democracy.
2. Discuss the composition, appointment and powers of the Election Commission of India.
Answer: Composition: Article 324 of the Constitution provides for the Election Commission of India. Originally a single-member body, it became a multi-member body from 1989. At present it consists of one Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners (ECs). All have equal powers and the CEC presides as primus inter pares.
Appointment: The CEC and ECs are appointed by the President of India. They hold office for six years or till the age of 65, whichever is earlier. Their salary and conditions of service are protected — these cannot be varied to their disadvantage during their term.
Removal: The CEC can be removed only by impeachment in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge. The other Election Commissioners can be removed by the President on the recommendation of the CEC.
Powers and Functions:
- Superintend, direct and control elections to Parliament, State Legislatures and the offices of President and Vice-President.
- Prepare and revise the electoral rolls.
- Determine the territorial areas of constituencies (in cooperation with the Delimitation Commission).
- Recognise political parties and allot election symbols.
- Notify the schedule of elections, scrutinise nomination papers, set up polling booths.
- Implement the Model Code of Conduct.
- Cancel polls in case of malpractice or rigging.
- Advise the President or Governor on disqualification of legislators.
- Act as a court for settling disputes related to recognition of parties and allotment of symbols.
- Supervise the machinery of elections throughout the country to ensure free and fair elections.
3. Why is the Election Commission considered an independent body?
Answer: The Election Commission is regarded as an independent body for the following reasons: (i) it is established by the Constitution itself, not by any ordinary law; (ii) the CEC and ECs have a fixed tenure and protected salary; (iii) the CEC can be removed only through the strict impeachment procedure applicable to Supreme Court judges; (iv) once appointed, the Commission is not answerable to the executive; (v) it has full administrative control over election machinery during elections — even Central and State Government officers act under its directions; (vi) its decisions can be challenged only before the courts and not reversed by the executive; (vii) the Constitution gives it the residuary power of “superintendence, direction and control” of elections, which has been interpreted broadly by the Supreme Court.
4. Describe the eligibility conditions and disqualifications for being a voter and a candidate in Indian elections.
Answer: Voter eligibility: A person must be (i) a citizen of India; (ii) at least 18 years of age on the qualifying date; (iii) ordinarily resident in the constituency; (iv) registered in the electoral roll. Disqualifications for a voter: (a) a person of unsound mind declared so by a competent court; (b) a person disqualified due to corrupt electoral practices; (c) certain prisoners.
Eligibility for a candidate: (i) a citizen of India; (ii) at least 25 years of age for Lok Sabha / State Assembly and 30 for Rajya Sabha / Legislative Council; (iii) registered as a voter in any constituency in the country; (iv) must take an oath of allegiance to the Constitution. Disqualifications: (a) holds an office of profit under the Government; (b) is of unsound mind; (c) is an undischarged insolvent; (d) is not a citizen of India; (e) is convicted of an offence and sentenced to two years or more (under Representation of People Act 1951); (f) is disqualified under any law of Parliament; (g) is disqualified on ground of defection under the Tenth Schedule.
5. What is the Model Code of Conduct? Explain its main provisions.
Answer: The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission of India for political parties and candidates during elections. It is enforced from the date of announcement of elections till results are declared. Although not statutory, it is enforced through ECI directions and political pressure.
Main provisions:
- No party or candidate may indulge in activity that may aggravate caste or communal hatred.
- Criticism of other parties must be confined to their policies and past record, not personal attacks.
- Use of religious places, religious sentiments and caste/communal feelings to gain votes is prohibited.
- Bribing voters, intimidation, impersonation and serving liquor on polling day is prohibited.
- Holding public meetings between 10 pm and 6 am is restricted.
- Ministers cannot announce new schemes or grants once elections are notified.
- Government vehicles, machinery and personnel cannot be used for the campaign of the ruling party.
- Pamphlets and posters must mention the printer and publisher.
- Political parties must give to ECI an audit of expenditure.
6. Examine the major electoral reforms in India.
Answer: Several reforms have been introduced to make Indian elections more free, fair and inclusive:
- Lowering of voting age from 21 to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment, 1989.
- EVMs introduced for tamper-proof, faster counting; VVPATs added for voter verification.
- NOTA option introduced in 2013 for voters who reject all candidates.
- Anti-defection law (52nd Amendment, 1985; 91st Amendment, 2003).
- Mandatory affidavits by candidates disclosing assets, criminal record, education.
- Expenditure ceilings on candidates raised from time to time.
- De-criminalisation efforts — disqualification of MPs/MLAs convicted of serious crimes (Lily Thomas case, 2013).
- State funding proposals (still under debate).
- Increase in security deposits to reduce non-serious candidates.
- Online voter registration and electoral photo identity cards (EPIC).
- Service voters / Non-resident Indian (NRI) voter registration.
- Women’s reservation in Panchayats and Municipalities (33%) and the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023, reserving 33% seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies (subject to delimitation).
7. Why did the Constitution makers reject separate electorates and instead provide for reservation of seats?
Answer: The British policy of separate electorates (introduced for Muslims by the Morley-Minto Reforms 1909 and extended later) was widely held responsible for the politics of communal division that culminated in the partition of India in 1947. Therefore, the Constituent Assembly, after long debate, rejected separate electorates because: (i) they fragmented the electorate along religious lines; (ii) the elected member became answerable only to a section of voters; (iii) they impeded the goal of national integration; (iv) they encouraged sectarian rather than national politics; (v) they offered representation to a community but not to the constituency as a whole.
Instead, the Constitution makers chose reservation of seats for SCs and STs, which (i) ensures that disadvantaged communities have guaranteed representation; (ii) allows all voters of the constituency to participate; (iii) makes the elected member answerable to the entire constituency; (iv) preserves the spirit of secular and inclusive politics. Reservation is reviewed every ten years (originally limited to 10 years; extended several times by amendments).
8. What are the merits and demerits of universal adult franchise? Has it succeeded in India?
Answer: Merits: (i) it is the foundation of true democracy — every citizen has equal political worth; (ii) it gives a sense of dignity and self-respect to every voter; (iii) it ensures political education and participation; (iv) it makes the government truly representative; (v) it prevents rule by an aristocratic or wealthy class; (vi) it integrates diverse social groups by including everyone in the political process.
Demerits: (i) it gives equal weight to the votes of the educated and uneducated, the informed and uninformed; (ii) majority rule may sometimes ignore minority interests; (iii) populism and short-term promises may dominate; (iv) ignorance, poverty and identity politics may be exploited; (v) campaigns become expensive.
Success in India: Despite a vast population, low literacy at independence and immense diversity, India has held seventeen general elections and several thousand state elections successfully. Voter turnout has steadily increased; women’s participation is rising; marginalised communities are gaining representation. Universal adult franchise has therefore been remarkably successful in India and stands as a globally recognised democratic achievement.
9. Discuss the role of the Election Commission in conducting free and fair elections in India.
Answer: The Election Commission of India is the watchdog of Indian democracy. Its role in ensuring free and fair elections includes: (i) preparing and updating accurate electoral rolls; (ii) issuing election notifications and scheduling polling dates; (iii) recognising political parties and allotting symbols; (iv) scrutinising nomination papers; (v) deploying central security forces and observers in sensitive constituencies; (vi) using EVMs and VVPATs for tamper-proof voting; (vii) enforcing the Model Code of Conduct strictly — even ministers and ruling parties are pulled up for violations; (viii) cancelling or repolling in booths/constituencies where rigging or violence occurs; (ix) regulating political advertising and election expenditure; (x) running voter awareness campaigns (SVEEP); (xi) ensuring participation of women, youth, persons with disabilities, NRIs and service voters.
Through these functions, the ECI has earned a reputation as one of the most respected election bodies in the world. The conduct of peaceful elections in a country of over 970 million voters is itself a testament to the institution’s effectiveness.
10. Explain the difference between direct and indirect elections in India with examples.
Answer: In a direct election, the voters themselves elect their representatives directly. Examples in India include elections to the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, Panchayats and Municipalities. The voter walks to a polling booth and casts a vote for one candidate.
In an indirect election, the voters elect an intermediary body which in turn elects the actual representative. Examples include the elections of the President (by elected MPs and MLAs), the Vice-President (by all MPs of both Houses), the Rajya Sabha members (by elected MLAs of each State), and the Legislative Councils. Indirect elections in India are usually conducted through Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The minimum age for voting in India is —
(a) 16 years (b) 18 years (c) 21 years (d) 25 years
Answer: (b) 18 years.
2. Which Article of the Indian Constitution deals with the Election Commission?
(a) 320 (b) 322 (c) 324 (d) 330
Answer: (c) 324.
3. The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 by which Constitutional Amendment?
(a) 42nd (b) 44th (c) 52nd (d) 61st
Answer: (d) 61st Amendment, 1989.
4. The President of India is elected by —
(a) the people directly
(b) elected MPs and MLAs
(c) all MPs and MLAs
(d) Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
Answer: (b) elected MPs and MLAs.
5. The system of voting used in the Lok Sabha is —
(a) Proportional Representation (b) Single Transferable Vote (c) FPTP (d) Cumulative voting
Answer: (c) FPTP.
6. Which of the following is elected by Proportional Representation in India?
(a) Lok Sabha (b) State Legislative Assembly (c) Rajya Sabha (d) Panchayat
Answer: (c) Rajya Sabha.
7. Total number of Lok Sabha constituencies is —
(a) 543 (b) 545 (c) 552 (d) 245
Answer: (a) 543.
8. The Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by —
(a) Prime Minister (b) President (c) Parliament (d) Supreme Court
Answer: (b) President.
9. The tenure of the Chief Election Commissioner is —
(a) 4 years or 60 years (b) 5 years or 62 years (c) 6 years or 65 years (d) 7 years or 70 years
Answer: (c) 6 years or 65 years, whichever is earlier.
10. NOTA was introduced in India in —
(a) 2009 (b) 2011 (c) 2013 (d) 2015
Answer: (c) 2013.
11. EVMs were first used in India in —
(a) 1977 (b) 1982 (c) 1989 (d) 2000
Answer: (b) 1982 (Kerala).
12. Which country uses Proportional Representation?
(a) United Kingdom (b) Israel (c) USA (d) Canada
Answer: (b) Israel.
13. Reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha is provided for —
(a) OBCs (b) SCs and STs (c) Religious minorities (d) Women
Answer: (b) SCs and STs.
14. The Model Code of Conduct is enforced by —
(a) Parliament (b) Supreme Court (c) Election Commission (d) Government of India
Answer: (c) Election Commission.
15. The minimum age to contest a Lok Sabha election is —
(a) 21 years (b) 25 years (c) 30 years (d) 35 years
Answer: (b) 25 years.
16. The minimum age to contest a Rajya Sabha election is —
(a) 21 (b) 25 (c) 30 (d) 35
Answer: (c) 30 years.
17. Which of the following best resembles direct democracy?
(a) Lok Sabha election (b) Gram Sabha decisions (c) Presidential election (d) Cabinet decisions
Answer: (b) Gram Sabha decisions.
18. Indian elections are based on —
(a) Limited adult franchise (b) Universal adult franchise (c) Property-based franchise (d) Educational franchise
Answer: (b) Universal adult franchise.
19. The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed by —
(a) The President at his pleasure (b) The Prime Minister (c) The procedure used to remove a Supreme Court judge (d) A simple majority of Parliament
Answer: (c) The procedure used to remove a Supreme Court judge.
20. Panchayat and Municipal elections are conducted by —
(a) Election Commission of India (b) State Election Commission (c) District Magistrate (d) State Government
Answer: (b) State Election Commission.
21. In a Reserved Constituency —
(a) Only voters of the reserved community can vote
(b) All voters can vote but only candidates of the reserved community can contest
(c) Only the reserved community can contest and vote
(d) None of the above
Answer: (b).
22. The Single Transferable Vote system is used in elections to —
(a) Lok Sabha (b) Vidhan Sabha (c) Rajya Sabha (d) Panchayat
Answer: (c) Rajya Sabha.
23. Which Schedule of the Constitution deals with anti-defection?
(a) Eighth (b) Ninth (c) Tenth (d) Twelfth
Answer: (c) Tenth Schedule.
24. The salary and expenses of the Chief Election Commissioner are charged on —
(a) Contingency Fund of India (b) Consolidated Fund of India (c) Public Account (d) Prime Minister’s Office
Answer: (b) Consolidated Fund of India.
25. India follows the FPTP system for the election of —
(a) President (b) Vice-President (c) Lok Sabha (d) Rajya Sabha
Answer: (c) Lok Sabha.
Key Terms / Glossary
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Constituency | A territorial unit into which a country/state is divided for elections |
| Universal Adult Franchise | Right to vote given to all adult citizens without discrimination |
| FPTP | First-Past-the-Post — candidate with highest votes wins |
| Proportional Representation | Seats allocated to parties in proportion to votes received |
| STV | Single Transferable Vote — preference-based PR system |
| Reserved Constituency | Seat reserved for SC/ST candidates; all voters vote |
| Separate Electorate | Only voters of a community vote for their own candidate |
| Election Commission | Independent body under Article 324 conducting elections |
| EVM | Electronic Voting Machine |
| VVPAT | Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail |
| NOTA | None Of The Above option on the EVM |
| Model Code of Conduct | Guidelines for parties and candidates during elections |
| By-election | Election to fill a single mid-term vacancy |
| Electoral Roll | Official list of registered voters |
| Plurality | Securing more votes than any other candidate (not necessarily majority) |
Comparison Table — FPTP vs PR (Quick Reference)
| Feature | FPTP | Proportional Representation |
|---|---|---|
| Constituency size | Many small constituencies | Whole country/large region treated as one |
| Voter votes for | Candidate | Party (list-PR) or ranked candidates (STV) |
| Winning condition | Most votes — plurality | Vote share = seat share |
| Government type | Stable single-party majorities | Frequent coalitions |
| Smaller parties | Disadvantaged | Fairly represented |
| Voter–representative link | Strong | Weaker |
| Examples | India (Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha), UK, USA | Israel, Netherlands, Belgium |
| Used in India for | Lok Sabha, State Assemblies | President, Vice-President, Rajya Sabha, Legislative Councils |
This study material on Class 11 Political Science Chapter 3 — Election and Representation — has been prepared for ASSEB HS 1st Year students of Assam to assist in board examination preparation. Read the chapter carefully and revise the comparison table to gain mastery over the topic.