Welcome, dear students of Class 11, to this complete English-medium study guide on Chapter 2: Terms from your ASSEB (Assam State School Education Board) Logic and Philosophy textbook. After our journey through the nature, scope and utility of Logic in Chapter 1, we now step into the smallest unit of logical thought — the term. Just as bricks build a house, terms build propositions, and propositions build inferences. Without a clear understanding of terms, the rest of Logic remains shaky.
This guide brings you the textbook definition of a term, the difference between a word and a term, the categorematic and syncategorematic distinction, every important classification of terms (Singular vs General, Concrete vs Abstract, Positive vs Negative, Connotative vs Non-connotative, Relative vs Absolute, Collective vs Distributive, Univocal/Equivocal/Analogous), the meaning of Connotation and Denotation, the famous inverse-variation law of J. S. Mill, and the refined classification of J. N. Keynes — all in plain, examination-friendly English. Read once for understanding, revise twice with the tables, and you will be ready for the half-yearly and final examinations.
Chapter Summary — Terms at a Glance
A term is a word or a group of words that can stand by itself as the subject or predicate of a logical proposition. In the proposition “All men are mortal,” the word “men” is the subject term and “mortal” is the predicate term. The little words “all” and “are” are not terms by themselves — they only help the terms to combine.
This gives us our first big distinction. A categorematic word is a word that can be used as a term on its own — like man, book, India, white, courage. A syncategorematic word cannot be a term on its own; it can only join with categorematic words to form a term — like the, of, and, but, very, all, some. So every term is a word, but not every word is a term.
Once we know what a term is, we classify terms in several useful ways:
- Singular vs General: A singular term names one definite individual (Rabindranath Tagore, the Brahmaputra). A general term applies in the same sense to any one of an indefinite number of individuals (man, river, student).
- Concrete vs Abstract: A concrete term names a thing along with its quality (white, man, sweet). An abstract term names the quality apart from the thing (whiteness, humanity, sweetness).
- Positive vs Negative: A positive term affirms the presence of a quality (happy, present, kind). A negative term denies the presence of a quality (unhappy, absent, unkind).
- Connotative vs Non-connotative (Mill): A connotative term denotes a subject and at the same time implies an attribute (man, horse, virtuous). A non-connotative term denotes a subject only, or an attribute only — e.g. proper names (Hari, London) and abstract attributes (whiteness, justice).
- Relative vs Absolute: A relative term cannot be understood without a correlative (father–son, master–servant, cause–effect). An absolute term is understood by itself, without reference to anything else (tree, stone, colour).
- Collective vs Distributive: A collective term applies to a group taken as one whole (army, library, jury). A distributive term applies separately to each member of a class (soldier, book, juror).
- Univocal, Equivocal, Analogous: A univocal term has exactly one meaning in every use (triangle). An equivocal term has two or more entirely different meanings (bank — river bank / money bank). An analogous term has meanings that are partly the same and partly different (healthy man, healthy food, healthy climate).
Two of the most important ideas in this chapter are Connotation and Denotation. The denotation of a term is the class of all the objects to which the term applies. The connotation of a term is the set of essential attributes which the term implies. The term “man” denotes Ram, Hari, Kabir, you, me and every other human being; it connotes animality + rationality.
J. S. Mill stated the famous Law of Inverse Variation: the connotation and denotation of a term vary inversely. Increase the connotation (add more attributes) and the denotation shrinks; decrease the connotation and the denotation expands. “Man” has more denotation than “educated man,” which in turn has more denotation than “educated Indian man.”
Finally, J. N. Keynes refined Mill’s scheme. Keynes pointed out that proper names, though they have no fixed connotation in dictionary sense, do carry an implicit connotation — the bundle of attributes by which we identify the individual. Keynes therefore separated terms into (i) Singular and General, (ii) Collective and Distributive, (iii) Concrete and Abstract, (iv) Connotative and Non-connotative, and added the careful distinction between etymological, conventional and subjective connotation.
Textbook Question and Answer
A. Very Short Answer Type Questions (1 mark)
Q1. What is a term?
Answer: A term is a word or a combination of words which by itself is capable of being used as the subject or predicate of a logical proposition.
Q2. Give one example of a singular term.
Answer: “Sankardev” is a singular term, because it refers to one definite individual.
Q3. Give one example of a general term.
Answer: “Book” is a general term, because it applies in the same sense to any one of an indefinite number of books.
Q4. What is a concrete term?
Answer: A concrete term is the name of a thing taken together with its quality, e.g. white, man, sweet.
Q5. What is an abstract term?
Answer: An abstract term is the name of a quality, attribute or relation considered apart from any thing possessing it, e.g. whiteness, humanity, sweetness.
Q6. Give one example of a positive term.
Answer: “Happy” is a positive term because it affirms the presence of an attribute.
Q7. Give one example of a negative term.
Answer: “Unhappy” is a negative term because it denies the presence of an attribute.
Q8. What is denotation?
Answer: The denotation of a term is the class of all the individual objects to which that term applies.
Q9. What is connotation?
Answer: The connotation of a term is the essential attribute or set of attributes which the term implies.
Q10. Who introduced the terms ‘connotation’ and ‘denotation’ in modern logic?
Answer: John Stuart Mill (J. S. Mill) introduced the terms ‘connotation’ and ‘denotation’ in modern logic.
Q11. State the law of inverse variation between connotation and denotation.
Answer: The connotation and denotation of a term vary inversely — when the connotation of a term increases, its denotation decreases, and when the connotation decreases, the denotation increases.
Q12. Give one example of a relative term.
Answer: “Father” is a relative term, because it cannot be understood without its correlative “son” or “daughter”.
Q13. Give one example of an absolute term.
Answer: “Stone” is an absolute term, because it can be understood by itself without reference to any other thing.
Q14. Give one example of a collective term.
Answer: “Army” is a collective term, because it stands for a group of soldiers taken as one whole.
Q15. Give one example of a distributive term.
Answer: “Soldier” is a distributive term, because it applies separately to every individual soldier.
Q16. What is a categorematic word?
Answer: A categorematic word is a word which by itself is capable of being used as the subject or predicate of a proposition, e.g. man, book, virtue.
Q17. What is a syncategorematic word?
Answer: A syncategorematic word is a word which cannot stand alone as a term, but can only form part of a term in combination with other words, e.g. the, of, and, but, all.
Q18. Give one example of a univocal term.
Answer: “Triangle” is a univocal term, because it has exactly the same meaning in every use.
Q19. Give one example of an equivocal term.
Answer: “Bank” is an equivocal term — in one sense it means the side of a river, in another sense it means a financial institution.
Q20. Give one example of an analogous term.
Answer: “Healthy” is an analogous term — a healthy man, healthy food and a healthy climate carry meanings that are partly the same and partly different.
B. Fill in the Blanks
Q21. _____ is an example of a general term.
Answer: Book (or Man, River, Student).
Q22. A term which refers to a single object is called a _____ term.
Answer: Singular.
Q23. The quality or essential attributes implied by a term is called its _____.
Answer: Connotation.
Q24. The class of individuals to which a term applies is called its _____.
Answer: Denotation.
Q25. Connotation and denotation vary _____.
Answer: Inversely.
Q26. “Whiteness” is an example of a/an _____ term.
Answer: Abstract.
Q27. “Father” is an example of a _____ term.
Answer: Relative.
Q28. “Library” taken as a single body of books is a _____ term.
Answer: Collective.
Q29. A word like ‘and’ or ‘of’ is a _____ word.
Answer: Syncategorematic.
Q30. The term ‘man’ connotes _____.
Answer: Animality and rationality (i.e., rational animal).
C. True / False
Q31. Every word is a term. (True / False)
Answer: False. Every term is a word, but not every word is a term — only categorematic words are terms.
Q32. Proper names are general terms. (True / False)
Answer: False. Proper names are singular terms, because they refer to one definite individual.
Q33. Abstract terms have denotation but no connotation. (True / False)
Answer: False. According to Mill, abstract terms have connotation only and no denotation in the proper sense; they name an attribute.
Q34. The denotation of “Indian” is greater than the denotation of “Indian student”. (True / False)
Answer: True. As connotation increases (“student” is added to “Indian”), denotation decreases.
Q35. “Crowd” is a distributive term. (True / False)
Answer: False. “Crowd” is a collective term — it stands for a group taken as one whole.
D. Short Answer Type Questions (2–3 marks)
Q36. Distinguish between a word and a term.
Answer: A word is any meaningful unit of language. A term is a special kind of word (or group of words) that can be used by itself as the subject or predicate of a logical proposition. Therefore every term is a word, but every word is not a term. Words like and, of, but are not terms because they cannot stand alone as subject or predicate; they are syncategorematic. Words like man, book, justice are terms because they can.
Q37. Distinguish between categorematic and syncategorematic words with examples.
Answer: A categorematic word is a word which by itself is capable of forming the subject or predicate of a proposition — e.g. man, virtue, India, white. A syncategorematic word cannot be a term on its own; it acquires meaning only when joined with categorematic words — e.g. the, of, and, but, all, some. Together, syncategorematic words help in forming complete terms, such as “the king of England” — where the and of are syncategorematic and king, England are categorematic.
Q38. Distinguish between singular and general terms.
Answer: A singular term denotes one definite individual — e.g. Rabindranath Tagore, the Kaziranga National Park, this book. A general term applies in the same sense to any one of an indefinite number of individuals — e.g. man, park, book. The chief difference is in the number of individuals to which the term applies: one in the case of a singular term, many in the case of a general term.
Q39. Distinguish between concrete and abstract terms.
Answer: A concrete term is the name of a thing as possessing certain qualities — e.g. man, sweet, white. An abstract term is the name of a quality, attribute or relation considered apart from any thing possessing it — e.g. humanity, sweetness, whiteness. Concrete terms denote substances; abstract terms denote attributes.
Q40. Distinguish between positive and negative terms.
Answer: A positive term affirms the presence of an attribute — e.g. happy, present, kind. A negative term denies the presence of an attribute — e.g. unhappy, absent, unkind. A negative term is generally formed by adding a negative prefix (un-, in-, non-, dis-) to a positive term. Some negative terms are privative, denying a quality where it should naturally be present, e.g. blind (denial of sight), dumb (denial of speech).
Q41. Distinguish between relative and absolute terms.
Answer: A relative term cannot be understood without reference to a correlative — father is understood only in relation to son/daughter; teacher with student; cause with effect. An absolute term is understood by itself, without any necessary reference to another thing — stone, tree, colour. Relative terms always come in pairs.
Q42. Distinguish between collective and distributive terms.
Answer: A collective term applies to a group taken as a single whole — army, library, jury, crowd. A distributive term applies separately to every member of the class — soldier, book, juror, person. Note that the same word can be used collectively or distributively depending on context: “The jury reached a verdict” (collective) vs “Every juror voted” (distributive).
Q43. Distinguish between connotative and non-connotative terms (Mill’s classification).
Answer: According to J. S. Mill, a connotative term is one which denotes a subject and at the same time implies an attribute. All concrete general terms are connotative; e.g., man denotes Ram, Hari, etc., and connotes the attributes of animality and rationality. A non-connotative term is one which denotes a subject only, or implies an attribute only. Proper names (Hari, London) are non-connotative because they denote a subject only without implying any attribute. Abstract terms (whiteness, justice) are non-connotative because they imply an attribute only.
Q44. Distinguish between univocal, equivocal and analogous terms.
Answer: A univocal term has one and the same meaning in every use — e.g. triangle, hydrogen. An equivocal term has two or more entirely different meanings — e.g. bank (river bank / money bank), bat (animal / cricket bat). An analogous term has meanings that are partly the same and partly different — e.g. healthy in “healthy man,” “healthy food,” “healthy climate,” where the central idea of health is shared in different ways.
Q45. What is the connotation of the term “man”?
Answer: The connotation of the term “man” is the set of essential attributes — animality + rationality. Sometimes additional attributes are listed: corporeality, life, sensitivity, rationality. These together form the connotation of “man.”
Q46. What is the denotation of the term “man”?
Answer: The denotation of the term “man” is the entire class of human beings — past, present and future, including Ram, Hari, you, me, and every other human being who exists, has existed or will exist.
E. Long Answer Type Questions (5–6 marks)
Q47. Define a term. Discuss the difference between a word and a term with suitable examples.
Answer: A term is defined as a word or a combination of words which by itself is capable of being used as the subject or predicate of a logical proposition. For example, in the proposition “All students are hard-working,” the words “students” and “hard-working” are terms. Words like “all” and “are” are not terms because they cannot stand alone as subject or predicate.
The difference between a word and a term can be brought out as follows:
- A word is the unit of language; a term is the unit of logic.
- Every term is a word, but every word is not a term.
- A word is studied by grammar; a term is studied by logic.
- Categorematic words can stand alone as terms (man, virtue, river); syncategorematic words (the, of, and, but, very) cannot.
- Sometimes a single word is a term (“man”), and sometimes several words combined form a single term (“the king of Bhutan”).
Hence in logic we are concerned only with those words, or groups of words, that can perform the role of subject or predicate in a proposition.
Q48. Explain the classification of terms with suitable examples.
Answer: Terms are classified in logic from many different points of view. The most important classifications are:
- Singular and General: A singular term refers to one definite individual (Gandhiji, the Brahmaputra). A general term applies to any one of an indefinite number of individuals (man, river).
- Concrete and Abstract: A concrete term names a thing along with its quality (white, man). An abstract term names the quality apart from the thing (whiteness, humanity).
- Positive and Negative: A positive term affirms the presence of a quality (happy, kind). A negative term denies the presence of a quality (unhappy, unkind).
- Connotative and Non-connotative: Connotative terms denote a subject and imply an attribute (man, horse). Non-connotative terms denote a subject only (proper names) or imply an attribute only (abstract terms).
- Relative and Absolute: Relative terms imply a correlative (father–son, master–servant). Absolute terms stand by themselves (tree, stone).
- Collective and Distributive: Collective terms apply to a group as a whole (army, library). Distributive terms apply to each member separately (soldier, book).
- Univocal, Equivocal, Analogous: Univocal — one fixed meaning (triangle); Equivocal — two unrelated meanings (bank); Analogous — partly same, partly different meanings (healthy).
This classification is important because the kind of term used in a proposition affects the validity of the inference based on that proposition.
Q49. What is meant by Connotation and Denotation of a term? Explain with examples.
Answer: Every general term has two aspects of meaning — the qualities it implies and the objects to which it applies.
The connotation (or intension) of a term is the set of essential attributes which the term implies. For example, the connotation of “man” is animality + rationality; the connotation of “triangle” is a closed plane figure bounded by three straight lines.
The denotation (or extension) of a term is the class of all the individuals to which the term applies. The denotation of “man” is the entire class of human beings; the denotation of “triangle” is all the triangles that exist or can be drawn.
Both these terms — connotation and denotation — were introduced into modern logic by J. S. Mill. Connotation gives us the quality aspect of meaning; denotation gives us the quantity aspect.
Examples:
- “Pen” — Connotation: an instrument used for writing with ink. Denotation: all pens.
- “Student” — Connotation: a person engaged in study. Denotation: all students.
- “Cow” — Connotation: a four-footed mammal which gives milk and chews the cud. Denotation: all cows.
Q50. State and explain Mill’s law of Inverse Variation between Connotation and Denotation.
Answer: J. S. Mill formulated the Law of Inverse Variation between the connotation and denotation of a term, which may be stated as follows:
“The connotation and denotation of a term vary inversely. As the connotation increases, the denotation decreases; and as the connotation decreases, the denotation increases.”
Explanation: Connotation refers to the attributes implied by a term, and denotation refers to the individuals covered by the term. If we add more attributes to a term, fewer individuals will possess all those attributes, so the denotation shrinks. If we remove attributes, more individuals will satisfy the remaining attributes, so the denotation expands.
Example 1 (increasing connotation):
- Man — connotes “animal + rational”; denotes all human beings.
- Indian Man — connotes “animal + rational + Indian”; denotes only Indian human beings (smaller class).
- Educated Indian Man — connotes “animal + rational + Indian + educated”; denotes only educated Indian men (still smaller class).
Example 2 (decreasing connotation):
- Bengali student — small denotation, larger connotation.
- Student — larger denotation, smaller connotation.
- Living being — still larger denotation, still smaller connotation.
Limitation: The law applies only to general connotative terms. It does not strictly apply to singular terms or to abstract terms whose denotation cannot be increased or decreased in the ordinary way. Despite this, the law remains a fundamental principle of traditional logic and is the basis for the processes of generalization and specialization.
Q51. Discuss Keynes’s classification of terms.
Answer: J. N. Keynes, in his Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic, gave a refined and systematic classification of terms. Keynes accepted Mill’s basic divisions but improved them on certain key points. The main features of Keynes’s classification are:
- Singular and General: A singular term denotes a single definite individual; a general term applies to many. Keynes pointed out that even singular terms can be examined for connotation.
- Collective and Distributive: Collective terms apply to a group as one whole; distributive terms apply to each member separately. Keynes emphasized that the same word can shift between collective and distributive use according to context.
- Concrete and Abstract: Concrete terms denote substances; abstract terms denote attributes.
- Connotative and Non-connotative: Keynes refined Mill’s view here. Mill held that proper names are non-connotative because they merely denote without implying any attribute. Keynes disagreed: he argued that proper names do have an implicit or subjective connotation — the bundle of attributes by which we recognize the individual. Therefore, according to Keynes, all terms are connotative in some sense.
- Three kinds of Connotation (Keynes):
- Etymological connotation — meaning derived from the origin of the word.
- Conventional connotation — the meaning fixed by general usage; this is the logical connotation.
- Subjective connotation — the meaning the term carries for a particular individual based on personal experience.
Keynes’s classification is regarded as more comprehensive than Mill’s, especially because it solves the puzzle of proper names and links logic with linguistic usage.
Q52. Explain the relation between Connotation and Denotation. Are there any exceptions to the law of inverse variation?
Answer: Connotation and denotation are the two aspects of the meaning of a general term. Connotation refers to the qualities implied by a term, while denotation refers to the individuals to which the term applies. Mill expressed the relation between them in the form of the Law of Inverse Variation — when one increases, the other decreases.
However, there are some apparent exceptions:
- Singular terms: A proper name like “Subhash Chandra Bose” denotes only one individual, so its denotation cannot be reduced further by adding attributes.
- Summum genus: A term like “Being” or “Existence” applies to everything that exists; its denotation cannot be further increased by removing attributes.
- Infima species: The lowest species cannot have its denotation reduced any further.
- Co-extensive terms: Sometimes adding an attribute does not reduce the denotation, because the new attribute is already implied. E.g. “rational man” has the same denotation as “man,” because rationality is already part of the connotation of “man.”
Hence the law applies in its strict form only to general connotative terms within the same logical hierarchy.
Additional Questions for Practice
Q53. Why is “the” not a term?
Answer: “The” is not a term because it cannot stand alone as the subject or predicate of a proposition. It is a syncategorematic word that helps form a term (e.g. “the President of India”) but is not itself a term.
Q54. Is “the present King of France” a term? If so, what kind?
Answer: “The present King of France” is a singular term (a definite description), although it is made up of several words. It is intended to denote a single definite individual, even when no such individual currently exists. (Note: France has no king today, but the expression is still treated as a singular term in form.)
Q55. Classify the following terms: virtue, sweetness, river, tree, master, soldier, library, Brahmaputra, equivocal “bank”, healthy.
Answer:
- Virtue — Abstract, General, Non-connotative.
- Sweetness — Abstract, Non-connotative.
- River — Concrete, General, Connotative, Absolute.
- Tree — Concrete, General, Connotative, Absolute, Distributive.
- Master — Concrete, General, Relative, Connotative.
- Soldier — Concrete, General, Distributive, Connotative.
- Library — Collective, Concrete.
- Brahmaputra — Singular, Concrete, Non-connotative (Mill) / Connotative in Keynes’s sense.
- Bank — Equivocal term.
- Healthy — Analogous term.
Q56. Why are abstract terms regarded as non-connotative by Mill?
Answer: According to Mill, abstract terms (whiteness, humanity, justice) are the names of attributes themselves. They imply an attribute but they do not denote any subject possessing the attribute. Since connotation is defined as denoting a subject and implying an attribute, abstract terms — which only imply an attribute without denoting a subject — are classed as non-connotative. (Some later logicians, including Keynes, hold that abstract terms have connotation but no denotation.)
Q57. Are proper names connotative or non-connotative? Discuss.
Answer: According to Mill, proper names are non-connotative — they merely denote an individual without implying any attribute. The name “Hari” simply marks out a person without telling us anything about him.
According to Keynes, proper names are connotative in a subjective sense — they carry an implicit bundle of attributes by which the person is identified. Without such an implicit connotation, we could not even recognize that two uses of “Hari” refer to the same person.
Both views are accepted in the textbook tradition: Mill’s view is the standard logical one; Keynes’s is a useful refinement.
Q58. Why are relative terms important in logic?
Answer: Relative terms are important because they show that some concepts cannot be defined in isolation. To understand “father” we must understand “son/daughter”; to understand “cause” we must understand “effect.” This forces logic to consider the relations between things, not only the things themselves, and prepares the ground for the logic of relations.
Q59. What is a privative term? Give an example.
Answer: A privative term is a special kind of negative term which denies a quality where the quality would naturally be expected to be present. For example, blind denies sight in a being which is naturally expected to see; dumb denies the power of speech in a being which is naturally expected to speak. A stone is not blind, because sight is not naturally expected of a stone.
Q60. Distinguish between intension and extension.
Answer: “Intension” and “extension” are the older logical names for what J. S. Mill called connotation and denotation. Intension = connotation = the qualities implied by a term. Extension = denotation = the class of individuals to which the term applies. The law of inverse variation is the same: as intension increases, extension decreases.
Q61. What is meant by ‘quantity’ of a term?
Answer: The ‘quantity’ of a term refers to the number of individuals to which it applies — that is, its denotation. A term may be of universal quantity (applying to all members of a class) or particular quantity (applying to some members).
Q62. Why is the study of terms important in logic?
Answer: Terms are the building blocks of propositions, and propositions are the building blocks of inferences. A vague or ambiguous term will produce a vague or ambiguous proposition, and a faulty proposition will produce an invalid inference. Therefore the study of terms — their nature, kinds, connotation and denotation — is the foundation of all sound reasoning.
Q63. Give five examples each of singular, general, concrete, abstract, positive and negative terms.
Answer:
- Singular: Gandhi, Mount Everest, the sun, this book, the river Brahmaputra.
- General: man, river, book, mountain, student.
- Concrete: man, white, sweet, tall, wise.
- Abstract: humanity, whiteness, sweetness, tallness, wisdom.
- Positive: happy, kind, present, equal, living.
- Negative: unhappy, unkind, absent, unequal, lifeless.
Q64. Why are ‘sun’, ‘moon’, ‘earth’ regarded as singular terms even though they are common nouns?
Answer: Although the words ‘sun’, ‘moon’ and ‘earth’ are common nouns in grammar, in our actual usage they refer to one definite individual object — the one sun of our solar system, our one moon, our one earth. Therefore, in the logical sense, they are treated as singular terms.
Q65. Can the same term be both collective and distributive?
Answer: Yes. The same word can be used collectively or distributively depending on the context. “The library is rich” — collective use, treating the library as one whole. “Every book in the library is rare” — distributive use, applying to each book separately. In logic, we must always check the context to decide whether a term is being used collectively or distributively.
Q66. Define ‘denotation’ and ‘connotation’ separately, and show how each is found.
Answer: The denotation of a term is the totality of individual objects to which the term may correctly be applied. To find the denotation of a term we ask: “Of what objects can this term be predicated?” The answer gives us the denotation. For example, to find the denotation of “river,” we list all the rivers — Brahmaputra, Ganga, Yamuna, Nile, Amazon, etc.
The connotation of a term is the set of essential attributes which the term implies — those without which the term cannot be applied. To find the connotation we ask: “What attributes are essential to all the individuals denoted by this term?” The answer gives us the connotation. For example, the essential attributes of “river” are: a flowing body of water, fed by tributaries, ending in a sea, lake or another river. These attributes form the connotation.
Q67. Examine whether the following terms are connotative or non-connotative: Hari, man, whiteness, triangle, India, justice, horse, the Brahmaputra.
Answer:
- Hari — Non-connotative (proper name, Mill’s view).
- Man — Connotative (general concrete term).
- Whiteness — Non-connotative (abstract term, implies attribute only).
- Triangle — Connotative (general concrete term).
- India — Non-connotative (proper name, Mill’s view).
- Justice — Non-connotative (abstract term).
- Horse — Connotative (general concrete term).
- The Brahmaputra — Non-connotative (singular concrete term, Mill’s view).
Q68. What are the chief points on which Keynes differs from Mill regarding the classification of terms?
Answer: The main points of difference between Keynes and Mill are:
- Proper Names: Mill held that proper names are non-connotative because they merely denote without implying any attribute. Keynes argued that proper names do have an implicit (subjective) connotation — the bundle of attributes by which we recognize the individual.
- Abstract Terms: Mill called abstract terms non-connotative because they only imply an attribute. Keynes pointed out that abstract terms can have connotation in the sense of higher-order qualities and a denotation that consists of qualities.
- Three Kinds of Connotation: Keynes distinguished three kinds of connotation — etymological, conventional and subjective — a refinement absent in Mill’s account.
- Universality of Connotation: According to Keynes, every term has some connotation (at least subjective); for Mill, only general concrete terms are properly connotative.
Q69. Show with a diagram how connotation and denotation vary inversely.
Answer: Imagine a vertical scale of generality:
- Living being (lowest connotation, largest denotation — covers all plants and animals).
- Animal (more connotation, smaller denotation — only animals, not plants).
- Mammal (still more connotation, smaller denotation — only mammals).
- Man (still more connotation, smaller denotation — only humans).
- Indian man (still more connotation, even smaller denotation).
- Educated Indian man (highest connotation in this list, smallest denotation).
As we move downward the connotation steadily increases and the denotation steadily decreases — exactly as Mill’s law states.
Q70. State whether each is true or false, with reason: (a) “Whiteness” is a concrete term. (b) “Library” is always a distributive term. (c) Every general term is connotative. (d) Every singular term is non-connotative.
Answer:
- (a) False. “Whiteness” is the name of a quality apart from any object possessing it; it is therefore an abstract term, not a concrete one.
- (b) False. “Library” is normally a collective term (a group of books taken as one whole). It can be used distributively only in special contexts.
- (c) True (in Mill’s classification). Every general concrete term denotes a class and implies attributes; hence it is connotative.
- (d) True for Mill, but disputed by Keynes. Mill held that singular terms (proper names) are non-connotative; Keynes argued that they carry an implicit subjective connotation.
Q71. Why does Mill say the connotation of a term is more important than its denotation?
Answer: Mill held that the connotation determines the meaning of a term, while the denotation is merely a list of the objects which happen to satisfy that meaning. We can know the connotation of “triangle” without knowing every triangle in the world; but we cannot know the denotation without first knowing the connotation that picks out which objects belong to the class. Hence connotation is logically primary, and the denotation follows from it.
Q72. State five essential differences between connotation and denotation.
Answer:
- Connotation refers to the qualities implied by a term; denotation refers to the individuals covered by it.
- Connotation is the qualitative aspect; denotation is the quantitative aspect of meaning.
- Connotation is sometimes called intension; denotation is sometimes called extension.
- Connotation determines denotation, not the other way round.
- Connotation and denotation vary inversely (Mill’s law).
Q73. What is the importance of studying the classification of terms?
Answer: The study of the classification of terms is important for several reasons. (i) It clarifies the meaning of terms used in arguments. (ii) It helps us avoid the fallacy of equivocation, since equivocal terms can ruin an inference. (iii) It enables us to spot the fallacy of accident, where a term used distributively is mistaken for a collective use, or vice versa. (iv) It helps in defining and dividing concepts properly. (v) Above all, it gives us a firm grasp of the materials with which propositions and inferences are built.
F. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Q74. A term is —
(a) Any meaningful word
(b) A word or group of words capable of being used as subject or predicate of a proposition
(c) Only a noun
(d) Only a verb
Answer: (b) A word or group of words capable of being used as subject or predicate of a proposition.
Q75. Which of the following is a syncategorematic word?
(a) Man
(b) Virtue
(c) And
(d) Book
Answer: (c) And.
Q76. Which of the following is a singular term?
(a) River
(b) The Brahmaputra
(c) Mountain
(d) Student
Answer: (b) The Brahmaputra.
Q77. “Whiteness” is —
(a) A concrete term
(b) An abstract term
(c) A relative term
(d) A collective term
Answer: (b) An abstract term.
Q78. “Father” is an example of a —
(a) Singular term
(b) Absolute term
(c) Relative term
(d) Abstract term
Answer: (c) Relative term.
Q79. Which of the following is a collective term?
(a) Soldier
(b) Army
(c) Book
(d) Man
Answer: (b) Army.
Q80. According to Mill, a proper name is —
(a) Connotative
(b) Non-connotative
(c) Abstract
(d) Relative
Answer: (b) Non-connotative.
Q81. The law of inverse variation was given by —
(a) Aristotle
(b) J. S. Mill
(c) Keynes
(d) Bain
Answer: (b) J. S. Mill.
Q82. The denotation of a term is —
(a) The qualities it implies
(b) The class of individuals to which it applies
(c) Its sound
(d) Its origin
Answer: (b) The class of individuals to which it applies.
Q83. The connotation of a term is —
(a) The class it covers
(b) The set of essential attributes it implies
(c) Its denotation
(d) Its quantity
Answer: (b) The set of essential attributes it implies.
Q84. Which of the following is an equivocal term?
(a) Triangle
(b) Bank
(c) Hydrogen
(d) Square
Answer: (b) Bank.
Q85. Which of the following is an analogous term?
(a) Triangle
(b) Healthy
(c) Bank
(d) Square
Answer: (b) Healthy.
Q86. As the connotation of a term increases, its denotation —
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
(c) Remains constant
(d) Disappears
Answer: (b) Decreases.
Q87. Which logician refined Mill’s classification of terms?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Bacon
(c) J. N. Keynes
(d) Russell
Answer: (c) J. N. Keynes.
Q88. Etymological, conventional and subjective connotation were distinguished by —
(a) Mill
(b) Keynes
(c) Aristotle
(d) Hobbes
Answer: (b) Keynes.
Q89. “Blind” is an example of —
(a) A positive term
(b) A privative term
(c) A relative term
(d) An abstract term
Answer: (b) A privative term.
Q90. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?
(a) Tree — Relative term
(b) Father — Absolute term
(c) Army — Collective term
(d) Soldier — Collective term
Answer: (c) Army — Collective term.
G. Match the Following
Q91. Match Column A with Column B.
| Column A | Column B |
|---|---|
| 1. Man | (a) Abstract term |
| 2. Whiteness | (b) Connotative concrete term |
| 3. Father | (c) Singular term |
| 4. Library | (d) Relative term |
| 5. The sun | (e) Collective term |
Answer: 1 — (b); 2 — (a); 3 — (d); 4 — (e); 5 — (c).
Q92. Match the logician with the contribution.
| Column A (Logician) | Column B (Contribution) |
|---|---|
| 1. J. S. Mill | (a) Three kinds of connotation |
| 2. J. N. Keynes | (b) Law of inverse variation |
| 3. Aristotle | (c) Categorematic / syncategorematic distinction (origin) |
Answer: 1 — (b); 2 — (a); 3 — (c).
H. Examples-Based Practice
Q93. Identify the kind of term in each of the following:
(i) Honesty (ii) Honest (iii) Mahatma Gandhi (iv) Soldier (v) Army (vi) The President of India (vii) Book (viii) The (ix) Triangle (x) Healthy
Answer:
- (i) Honesty — Abstract term.
- (ii) Honest — Concrete, positive term.
- (iii) Mahatma Gandhi — Singular term (proper name).
- (iv) Soldier — General, distributive, concrete term.
- (v) Army — Collective term.
- (vi) The President of India — Singular term (definite description).
- (vii) Book — General, concrete, distributive term.
- (viii) The — Syncategorematic word (not a term).
- (ix) Triangle — General, concrete, univocal term.
- (x) Healthy — Analogous term.
Q94. State the connotation and denotation of the following terms:
(i) Pen (ii) Triangle (iii) Cow (iv) Student (v) River
Answer:
| Term | Connotation | Denotation |
|---|---|---|
| Pen | An instrument used for writing with ink | All pens (ballpoint, fountain, gel…) |
| Triangle | A closed plane figure bounded by three straight lines | All triangles |
| Cow | A four-footed mammal that gives milk and chews the cud | All cows in the world |
| Student | A person engaged in study | All students of every kind |
| River | A flowing body of water that empties into a sea, lake or another river | Brahmaputra, Ganga, Nile, Amazon, etc. |
Q95. Increase the connotation of “Animal” step by step and show how the denotation falls.
Answer:
| Step | Term | Connotation added | Effect on denotation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Animal | Living + sentient | All animals |
| 2 | Mammal | + Gives birth to live young, suckles them | Only mammals |
| 3 | Man | + Rationality | Only human beings |
| 4 | Indian Man | + Indian nationality | Only Indian human beings |
| 5 | Educated Indian Man | + Educated | Only educated Indian men |
Each step increases the connotation by one attribute and reduces the denotation accordingly — a perfect illustration of Mill’s law of inverse variation.
Glossary
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Term | A word or group of words capable of being used as subject or predicate of a proposition. |
| Categorematic word | A word that can stand alone as a term (man, book, virtue). |
| Syncategorematic word | A word that cannot be a term by itself; helps form terms (the, of, and, but, all). |
| Singular term | A term denoting one definite individual (Gandhi, the Taj Mahal). |
| General term | A term applying to any one of an indefinite number of individuals (man, river). |
| Concrete term | Name of a thing along with its quality (white, man, sweet). |
| Abstract term | Name of a quality apart from the thing (whiteness, humanity, sweetness). |
| Positive term | A term that affirms the presence of a quality (happy, kind, present). |
| Negative term | A term that denies the presence of a quality (unhappy, unkind, absent). |
| Privative term | A negative term that denies a quality where it should naturally be present (blind, dumb). |
| Connotative term | A term that denotes a subject and implies an attribute (man, horse). |
| Non-connotative term | A term that denotes a subject only or implies an attribute only (Hari, whiteness). |
| Relative term | A term that requires a correlative for its meaning (father–son, cause–effect). |
| Absolute term | A term understood by itself, without correlative (tree, stone). |
| Collective term | A term applying to a group as one whole (army, library, jury). |
| Distributive term | A term applying separately to each member of a class (soldier, book, juror). |
| Univocal term | A term with one fixed meaning in every use (triangle). |
| Equivocal term | A term with two or more entirely different meanings (bank, bat). |
| Analogous term | A term whose meanings are partly the same and partly different (healthy). |
| Connotation (Intension) | The set of essential attributes implied by a term. |
| Denotation (Extension) | The class of individuals to which a term applies. |
| Law of Inverse Variation | Mill’s principle that connotation and denotation vary inversely. |
| Etymological connotation | Meaning derived from the origin (etymology) of the word (Keynes). |
| Conventional connotation | Meaning fixed by general usage; the proper logical connotation (Keynes). |
| Subjective connotation | Meaning a term carries for an individual based on personal experience (Keynes). |
Types of Terms — Summary Table
| Classification | Type 1 | Type 2 | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| By number of individuals | Singular | General | Gandhi / man |
| By presence of quality | Concrete | Abstract | man / humanity |
| By affirmation/denial | Positive | Negative | happy / unhappy |
| By Mill | Connotative | Non-connotative | man, horse / Hari, whiteness |
| By correlative | Relative | Absolute | father–son / tree |
| By application | Collective | Distributive | army / soldier |
| By meaning (1 / many / mixed) | Univocal / Equivocal / Analogous | — | triangle / bank / healthy |
| By function in proposition | Categorematic word | Syncategorematic word | man, book / and, of, the |
Connotation and Denotation — Quick-Reference Table
| Term | Connotation (qualities implied) | Denotation (objects to which it applies) |
|---|---|---|
| Man | Animality + Rationality | All human beings (Ram, Hari, you, me…) |
| Triangle | Closed plane figure with three straight sides | All triangles (equilateral, isosceles, scalene…) |
| Cow | Four-footed mammal that gives milk and chews the cud | All cows in the world |
| Pen | An instrument used for writing with ink | All pens (ballpoint, fountain, gel…) |
| Student | A person engaged in study | All students (school, college, university…) |
| Indian Man | Animality + Rationality + Indian nationality | Only Indian human beings (smaller class) |
| Educated Indian Man | Animality + Rationality + Indian + Educated | Educated Indian men only (still smaller class) |
Note on the table above: moving down the table you can see Mill’s law of inverse variation in action — as we add more attributes to the connotation, the denotation gets smaller and smaller.
This completes the English-medium ASSEB study guide for Class 11 Logic and Philosophy — Chapter 2: Terms. Make sure you can define a term, distinguish it from a word, list and illustrate the seven main classifications, and explain Mill’s law of inverse variation between connotation and denotation. Once these are firm, propositions in Chapter 3 will feel much easier.