Welcome to HSLC Guru. In this article we present a complete and exam-oriented set of solutions for Class 11 Logic and Philosophy Chapter 11 Indian Philosophy for the English Medium students of ASSEB (Assam State School Education Board). Indian Philosophy is one of the richest, oldest and deepest traditions of philosophical reflection in the world. It has been developed over thousands of years by Vedic seers, ascetics, monks and reformers who all asked the same fundamental question — how can a human being escape suffering and attain the highest spiritual freedom called moksha? In this chapter you will study the general characteristics of Indian Philosophy, the basic difference between the orthodox (Astika) and the heterodox (Nastika) schools, the six Astika systems (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta), and the three Nastika systems (Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism). The chapter ends with a comparative study of these schools and the spiritual goal that unites them — liberation of the self.
This article gives you (a) a clear summary of the chapter, (b) the textbook question-answers in MCQ, fill in the blanks, true/false, very short, short and long answer formats, (c) a set of additional questions for higher marks, (d) a glossary of important Sanskrit terms, and (e) several comparison tables that make revision quick and easy. Read it carefully along with your ASSEB textbook for the best result in the Higher Secondary First Year examination.
Chapter Summary
Indian Philosophy is the product of the spiritual experience of the Indian people. It begins with the Vedas — the oldest religious literature of the world — and continues through the Upanishads, the epics, the Sutras and the commentaries down to the modern age. The word darshana, which is the Sanskrit equivalent of “philosophy”, literally means “vision” or “direct seeing”. Therefore, Indian Philosophy is not a mere intellectual exercise; it is a vision of truth gained through reasoning and through inner spiritual experience.
General Characteristics of Indian Philosophy
The different schools of Indian Philosophy disagree on many metaphysical issues, but they all share certain common features that distinguish Indian Philosophy from Western Philosophy.
(i) Spiritual orientation: Indian Philosophy is essentially spiritual. Its highest concern is not material prosperity but the realisation of the eternal Self. Even materialism (Charvaka) takes its position as a reaction against this spiritual mainstream.
(ii) Unity of theory and practice: Indian Philosophy is never purely speculative. Theory must always lead to practice — to a way of life. Knowledge that does not transform the life of the knower is regarded as useless.
(iii) Authority of the Vedas: The orthodox schools accept the Vedas as the supreme source of valid knowledge regarding super-sensible reality. Even the schools that do not accept Vedic authority were forced to argue against the Vedas, showing the central importance of the Vedas in Indian thought.
(iv) Law of Karma: Every action — physical, verbal or mental — produces an appropriate result. Good actions produce happiness and bad actions produce suffering. Disinterested or selfless actions produce no bondage. The law of karma operates throughout the universe as a universal moral law.
(v) Doctrine of Samsara (Rebirth): Because the consequences of every action cannot always be enjoyed in one life, the soul must take rebirth to enjoy or suffer the fruits of its past actions. The cycle of birth-death-rebirth is called samsara.
(vi) Eternal moral order: The universe is not a blind mechanism. It is governed by an eternal moral order (rita / dharma). Every event in the world is morally meaningful.
(vii) Eternal soul: Except Charvaka and the Buddhists, every Indian school accepts the existence of an eternal, unchanging Self (Atman / Jiva).
(viii) Self-control and discipline: Self-control of the lower animal tendencies, redirection of energies towards a higher goal, and rigorous spiritual discipline are recognised as the means to liberation.
(ix) Common goal of Moksha: Every Indian school — orthodox or heterodox — accepts moksha (liberation, freedom from rebirth) as the highest end of human life. Charvaka is the only exception; it accepts pleasure (kama) as the highest end.
(x) Ignorance as the root of bondage: Almost every school holds that the cause of bondage is ignorance (avidya), and the cause of liberation is right knowledge (jnana / prajna).
Classification: Astika and Nastika Schools
The most widely accepted classification of Indian Philosophy is based on the attitude of each school towards the Vedas.
Astika (Orthodox): Schools that accept the authority of the Vedas. There are six Astika schools — Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. They are also called the Shad-Darshana (six visions).
Nastika (Heterodox): Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas. There are three Nastika schools — Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism.
The word “astika” therefore means “one who accepts (the Vedas)” and “nastika” means “one who rejects (the Vedas)”. It is a technical use of the words and does not mean “theist” and “atheist” in the ordinary sense.
The Six Astika Schools
1. Nyaya: Founded by sage Gautama (Akshapada). It is mainly a school of logic and epistemology. It accepts four valid means of knowledge (pramanas) — perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana) and verbal testimony (shabda). Its inference uses a five-membered syllogism. Liberation is attained through right knowledge of the sixteen categories.
2. Vaisheshika: Founded by sage Kanada. It is a school of atomism and metaphysics. It teaches that the physical world is made of eternal, indivisible atoms (paramanu) of earth, water, fire and air. It admits seven categories (padarthas) — substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, inherence and non-existence.
3. Samkhya: Founded by sage Kapila. It is a dualistic philosophy. Reality consists of two eternal principles — Prakriti (primordial matter) and Purusha (pure consciousness). Prakriti is composed of three gunas — sattva (purity), rajas (activity) and tamas (inertia). The world evolves out of Prakriti in twenty-five tattvas. Liberation is the discriminative knowledge that Purusha is different from Prakriti.
4. Yoga: Systematized by sage Patanjali in the Yoga-sutra. It accepts the metaphysics of Samkhya but adds the practical method of liberation. Yoga means “the cessation of the modifications of the mind” (chitta-vrtti-nirodha). It prescribes the eight-fold practice (Ashtanga Yoga) — yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi.
5. Mimamsa (Purva-Mimamsa): Founded by sage Jaimini. It is the school of Vedic ritualism. It is concerned with the correct interpretation and performance of Vedic rituals. Dharma — duty as prescribed by the Vedas — is its central concept. The Vedas are eternal and self-valid. Heaven and liberation are obtained through the proper performance of Vedic duties.
6. Vedanta (Uttara-Mimamsa): Founded on the Brahma-sutra of Badarayana. Vedanta means “the end of the Vedas” — the philosophy of the Upanishads. It is concerned with the knowledge of Brahman (the Absolute Reality). It has three main sub-schools:
– Advaita of Shankara — Brahman alone is real, the world is illusion (maya), and Atman is identical with Brahman.
– Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja — Brahman is qualified by the world and the souls; the world and the souls are real but inseparable from Brahman.
– Dvaita of Madhva — Brahman, the world and the souls are eternally distinct and real.
The Three Nastika Schools
1. Charvaka (Lokayata): A materialistic school named after its supposed founder Charvaka. It rejects the Vedas, the soul, God, karma, rebirth and moksha. Only the body, made of the four elements (earth, water, fire and air), is real. Consciousness is an emergent property of matter, like the intoxicating quality of fermented liquor. The only valid means of knowledge is perception (pratyaksha). The highest end of life is pleasure (kama). The school is summarised in its famous slogan — “Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die.”
2. Buddhism: Founded by Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE). Buddhism teaches the Four Noble Truths — (i) life is full of suffering (dukkha), (ii) suffering has a cause (craving / tanha), (iii) suffering can be ended, (iv) the way to end suffering is the Noble Eight-Fold Path — right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Buddhism also teaches three fundamental doctrines — anitya (everything is impermanent), anatta (there is no permanent self) and pratityasamutpada (dependent origination). After Buddha, Buddhism split mainly into Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana traditions.
3. Jainism: The 24th and last Tirthankara, Mahavira, gave Jainism its present form. Jainism accepts an infinite number of eternal souls (jivas) and an eternal material principle (ajiva). The soul is bound by karma-matter that sticks to it because of passions. Liberation is freedom from karma-matter. Jainism is famous for three doctrines — Anekantavada (the doctrine that reality has many aspects), Syadvada (the doctrine of conditional predication — every statement is true only “in some respect”), and the Three Jewels (Triratna) of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The supreme moral principle is Ahimsa — non-injury to all living beings.
The Common Goal — Moksha
In spite of all their differences, every Indian school (except Charvaka) accepts liberation (moksha / mukti / nirvana / kaivalya) as the highest end of human life. The cause of bondage is ignorance, and the cause of liberation is right knowledge combined with moral discipline. This unity of spiritual goal in the midst of philosophical diversity is the most distinctive feature of Indian Philosophy.
Textbook Question Answers
A. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
1. The word “darshana” literally means —
(a) Reading
(b) Listening
(c) Vision / Direct seeing
(d) Doubt
Answer: (c) Vision / Direct seeing.
2. The schools of Indian Philosophy that accept the authority of the Vedas are called —
(a) Nastika
(b) Astika
(c) Lokayata
(d) Charvaka
Answer: (b) Astika.
3. The number of Astika (orthodox) schools of Indian Philosophy is —
(a) Three
(b) Four
(c) Six
(d) Nine
Answer: (c) Six.
4. The number of Nastika (heterodox) schools of Indian Philosophy is —
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Six
Answer: (c) Three.
5. Which of the following is a Nastika school?
(a) Nyaya
(b) Samkhya
(c) Charvaka
(d) Mimamsa
Answer: (c) Charvaka.
6. Which of the following is an Astika school?
(a) Charvaka
(b) Buddhism
(c) Jainism
(d) Vedanta
Answer: (d) Vedanta.
7. The founder of the Nyaya philosophy is —
(a) Kapila
(b) Kanada
(c) Gautama
(d) Patanjali
Answer: (c) Gautama.
8. The founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy is —
(a) Jaimini
(b) Kanada
(c) Kapila
(d) Badarayana
Answer: (b) Kanada.
9. The founder of the Samkhya philosophy is —
(a) Patanjali
(b) Kapila
(c) Gautama
(d) Mahavira
Answer: (b) Kapila.
10. The founder of the Yoga philosophy is —
(a) Kanada
(b) Patanjali
(c) Kapila
(d) Shankara
Answer: (b) Patanjali.
11. The founder of the Mimamsa philosophy is —
(a) Jaimini
(b) Badarayana
(c) Kapila
(d) Buddha
Answer: (a) Jaimini.
12. The author of the Brahma-sutra (the basic text of Vedanta) is —
(a) Shankara
(b) Ramanuja
(c) Madhva
(d) Badarayana
Answer: (d) Badarayana.
13. The propounder of the Advaita Vedanta is —
(a) Madhva
(b) Ramanuja
(c) Shankara
(d) Vallabha
Answer: (c) Shankara.
14. The propounder of the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta is —
(a) Shankara
(b) Madhva
(c) Ramanuja
(d) Nimbarka
Answer: (c) Ramanuja.
15. The propounder of the Dvaita Vedanta is —
(a) Madhva
(b) Shankara
(c) Ramanuja
(d) Patanjali
Answer: (a) Madhva.
16. Charvaka philosophy admits how many means of knowledge?
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Four
Answer: (a) One — only perception (pratyaksha).
17. The Four Noble Truths are taught in —
(a) Jainism
(b) Buddhism
(c) Charvaka
(d) Mimamsa
Answer: (b) Buddhism.
18. The doctrine of Anekantavada is associated with —
(a) Buddhism
(b) Charvaka
(c) Jainism
(d) Yoga
Answer: (c) Jainism.
19. Ashtanga Yoga (the eight-fold path of Yoga) was taught by —
(a) Patanjali
(b) Kapila
(c) Buddha
(d) Mahavira
Answer: (a) Patanjali.
20. The Noble Eight-Fold Path was taught by —
(a) Mahavira
(b) Buddha
(c) Shankara
(d) Patanjali
Answer: (b) Buddha.
21. The doctrine of “anatta” (no-self) is a teaching of —
(a) Jainism
(b) Buddhism
(c) Vedanta
(d) Samkhya
Answer: (b) Buddhism.
22. The Three Jewels (Triratna) — right faith, right knowledge and right conduct — belong to —
(a) Buddhism
(b) Jainism
(c) Yoga
(d) Vedanta
Answer: (b) Jainism.
23. The highest end of life according to Charvaka is —
(a) Dharma
(b) Artha
(c) Kama (pleasure)
(d) Moksha
Answer: (c) Kama (pleasure).
24. The school of Indian Philosophy that does not accept the existence of God is —
(a) Vedanta
(b) Charvaka
(c) Nyaya
(d) Yoga
Answer: (b) Charvaka.
25. The total number of “darshanas” (schools) of Indian Philosophy (Astika + Nastika) is —
(a) Six
(b) Eight
(c) Nine
(d) Ten
Answer: (c) Nine.
B. Fill in the Blanks
1. The Sanskrit word for philosophy is __________.
Answer: Darshana.
2. The schools that accept the authority of the Vedas are called __________.
Answer: Astika (orthodox).
3. The schools that reject the authority of the Vedas are called __________.
Answer: Nastika (heterodox).
4. Nyaya philosophy was founded by __________.
Answer: Sage Gautama (Akshapada).
5. Vaisheshika philosophy was founded by __________.
Answer: Sage Kanada.
6. Samkhya philosophy was founded by __________.
Answer: Sage Kapila.
7. The Yoga-sutra was composed by __________.
Answer: Patanjali.
8. The Mimamsa philosophy was founded by __________.
Answer: Sage Jaimini.
9. The Brahma-sutra was composed by __________.
Answer: Badarayana.
10. The Advaita school of Vedanta was propounded by __________.
Answer: Shankaracharya.
11. The Vishishtadvaita school was propounded by __________.
Answer: Ramanuja.
12. The Dvaita school was propounded by __________.
Answer: Madhva.
13. Charvaka admits only one pramana, namely __________.
Answer: Perception (pratyaksha).
14. The two ultimate principles of Samkhya are __________ and __________.
Answer: Prakriti and Purusha.
15. The three gunas of Prakriti are __________, __________ and __________.
Answer: Sattva, rajas and tamas.
16. The eight limbs of Yoga are together called __________.
Answer: Ashtanga Yoga.
17. The atomic theory in Indian Philosophy is taught by __________ school.
Answer: Vaisheshika.
18. The 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism is __________.
Answer: Mahavira.
19. The supreme moral principle of Jainism is __________.
Answer: Ahimsa (non-injury).
20. The Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination is called __________.
Answer: Pratityasamutpada.
21. The two main sub-schools of Buddhism are __________ and __________.
Answer: Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana.
22. The doctrine that reality has many aspects is called __________.
Answer: Anekantavada.
23. The Jaina doctrine of conditional predication is called __________.
Answer: Syadvada.
24. The Three Jewels (Triratna) of Jainism are __________, __________ and __________.
Answer: Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
25. The highest goal of human life common to almost all Indian schools is __________.
Answer: Moksha (liberation).
C. True or False
1. The word “darshana” means “vision” or “direct seeing”.
Answer: True.
2. Indian Philosophy is mainly speculative and has no practical aim.
Answer: False. Indian Philosophy is essentially practical — it aims at liberation.
3. Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta are the six Astika schools.
Answer: True.
4. Charvaka is an Astika school.
Answer: False. Charvaka is a Nastika (heterodox) school.
5. Buddhism and Jainism reject the authority of the Vedas.
Answer: True.
6. Charvaka accepts the existence of God and soul.
Answer: False. Charvaka rejects God, soul, karma, rebirth and moksha.
7. The Vaisheshika school teaches the atomic theory of the universe.
Answer: True.
8. Samkhya is a monistic philosophy.
Answer: False. Samkhya is a dualistic philosophy (Prakriti and Purusha).
9. Yoga adopts the metaphysics of Samkhya.
Answer: True.
10. Mimamsa is mainly concerned with the correct performance of Vedic rituals.
Answer: True.
11. Advaita Vedanta teaches that the world is real and different from Brahman.
Answer: False. Advaita teaches that the world is unreal (maya) and Atman is identical with Brahman.
12. Ramanuja is the propounder of Dvaita Vedanta.
Answer: False. Ramanuja propounded Vishishtadvaita; Madhva propounded Dvaita.
13. The Buddhist doctrine that everything is impermanent is called anitya.
Answer: True.
14. Buddhism accepts the existence of an eternal soul.
Answer: False. Buddhism teaches anatta — there is no permanent self.
15. The Noble Eight-Fold Path was taught by Buddha.
Answer: True.
16. Jainism teaches that there is only one soul in the universe.
Answer: False. Jainism teaches that there are infinite eternal souls (jivas).
17. Mahavira is the founder of Buddhism.
Answer: False. Mahavira is the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism; Buddha is the founder of Buddhism.
18. Ahimsa is the supreme moral principle of Jainism.
Answer: True.
19. Charvaka accepts perception as the only valid pramana.
Answer: True.
20. Moksha is the common goal of almost all Indian philosophical schools.
Answer: True.
D. Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark)
1. What is the meaning of the word “darshana”?
Answer: Darshana literally means “vision” or “direct seeing” — direct realisation of truth.
2. What is the difference between Astika and Nastika schools?
Answer: Astika schools accept the authority of the Vedas; Nastika schools reject it.
3. Name the six Astika schools.
Answer: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
4. Name the three Nastika schools.
Answer: Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism.
5. Who is the founder of the Nyaya school?
Answer: Sage Gautama (Akshapada).
6. Who is the founder of the Vaisheshika school?
Answer: Sage Kanada.
7. Who is the founder of the Samkhya school?
Answer: Sage Kapila.
8. Who composed the Yoga-sutra?
Answer: Patanjali.
9. Who is the founder of the Mimamsa school?
Answer: Sage Jaimini.
10. Who composed the Brahma-sutra?
Answer: Badarayana.
11. Name the three sub-schools of Vedanta.
Answer: Advaita (Shankara), Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja) and Dvaita (Madhva).
12. What is the only valid means of knowledge accepted by Charvaka?
Answer: Pratyaksha (perception).
13. What is the highest end of life according to Charvaka?
Answer: Kama (pleasure).
14. What are the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism?
Answer: (i) Life is suffering, (ii) suffering has a cause, (iii) suffering can be ended, (iv) the way to end suffering is the Noble Eight-Fold Path.
15. What is the Noble Eight-Fold Path?
Answer: Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
16. What is the meaning of “anatta”?
Answer: Anatta means “no-self” — the doctrine that there is no permanent self.
17. What is the meaning of “anitya”?
Answer: Anitya means impermanence — everything in the world is momentary.
18. What is “pratityasamutpada”?
Answer: The Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination — every event arises depending on causes and conditions.
19. Name the two main sub-schools of Buddhism.
Answer: Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana.
20. Who is the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism?
Answer: Mahavira.
21. What is “Anekantavada”?
Answer: The Jaina doctrine that reality has many aspects.
22. What is “Syadvada”?
Answer: The Jaina doctrine of conditional predication — every statement is true only “in some respect”.
23. What are the Three Jewels (Triratna) of Jainism?
Answer: Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
24. What is the supreme moral principle of Jainism?
Answer: Ahimsa (non-injury).
25. What is the common goal of almost all Indian philosophical schools?
Answer: Moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death).
26. What are the three gunas of Prakriti according to Samkhya?
Answer: Sattva, rajas and tamas.
27. What are the two ultimate principles of Samkhya?
Answer: Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (consciousness).
28. What is the literal meaning of “Vedanta”?
Answer: “End of the Vedas” — the philosophy of the Upanishads.
29. Which school is famous for the atomic theory?
Answer: The Vaisheshika school.
30. Who taught the Ashtanga Yoga?
Answer: Patanjali.
E. Short Answer Questions (2-3 marks)
1. What is meant by Indian Philosophy?
Answer: Indian Philosophy is the philosophical thought that developed in India over thousands of years, beginning with the Vedas and continuing through the Upanishads, the epics, the Sutras and the commentaries. The Sanskrit word for philosophy is “darshana”, which literally means “vision” — direct seeing of the truth. Indian Philosophy is essentially spiritual and practical; it aims not at mere information but at the realisation of the highest reality and the liberation of the self.
2. State any three general characteristics of Indian Philosophy.
Answer: (i) Indian Philosophy is essentially spiritual; it aims at the realisation of the eternal Self. (ii) It maintains the unity of theory and practice — knowledge must transform the life of the knower. (iii) It accepts the law of karma — every action produces an appropriate result, and the soul takes rebirth to enjoy or suffer the fruits of its past actions.
3. Distinguish between Astika and Nastika schools.
Answer: The classification rests on attitude towards the Vedas. The Astika (orthodox) schools — Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta — accept the Vedas as the supreme authority. The Nastika (heterodox) schools — Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism — reject the authority of the Vedas. The terms do not mean “theist” and “atheist” in the ordinary sense; for example, Samkhya is technically Astika though it does not require God, while Jainism, though deeply religious, is Nastika because it rejects the Vedas.
4. What is the law of karma?
Answer: The law of karma is the universal moral law accepted by almost every Indian school. It states that every action — physical, verbal or mental — produces an appropriate result. Good actions produce happiness and bad actions produce suffering. Disinterested or selfless actions, however, produce no bondage. Because the consequences of every action cannot always be enjoyed in one life, the soul must take rebirth to experience them. This explains the cycle of samsara.
5. Who founded the Nyaya school and what is its main concern?
Answer: The Nyaya school was founded by sage Gautama, also known as Akshapada. The main concern of Nyaya is logic and epistemology — the methods of right knowledge. It accepts four valid means of knowledge (pramanas) — perception, inference, comparison and verbal testimony. Nyaya inference uses a five-membered syllogism. Liberation, according to Nyaya, is attained through correct knowledge of the sixteen categories.
6. What is the atomic theory of Vaisheshika?
Answer: The atomic theory was given by sage Kanada in the Vaisheshika school. According to this theory, the physical world is made up of eternal, indivisible and minute particles called paramanu (atoms). Atoms are of four kinds — atoms of earth, water, fire and air. Atoms combine to form dyads (dvyanuka) and triads (tryanuka), and these in turn build up the gross objects of the world. Atoms are eternal, but combinations are non-eternal.
7. What is the central doctrine of Samkhya?
Answer: Samkhya is a dualistic philosophy founded by sage Kapila. It holds that reality consists of two eternal, independent principles — Prakriti (primordial matter, unconscious) and Purusha (pure consciousness, inactive). Prakriti is composed of three gunas — sattva (purity), rajas (activity) and tamas (inertia). The world evolves out of Prakriti through twenty-five tattvas. Liberation is the discriminative knowledge that Purusha is entirely different from Prakriti.
8. What is Ashtanga Yoga?
Answer: Ashtanga Yoga, the eight-fold path of Yoga taught by Patanjali in the Yoga-sutra, is the practical method for attaining the cessation of mental modifications (chitta-vrtti-nirodha). The eight limbs are — yama (moral restraints), niyama (observances), asana (posture), pranayama (control of breath), pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (super-conscious absorption).
9. What is Mimamsa philosophy?
Answer: Mimamsa, also called Purva-Mimamsa, was founded by sage Jaimini. It is the philosophical school of Vedic ritualism. Its central concern is the correct interpretation of the Vedic texts and the proper performance of Vedic rituals. Dharma — duty as prescribed by the Vedas — is its main concept. The Vedas are eternal and self-valid. Heaven and ultimately liberation are obtained through the performance of Vedic duties.
10. What are the three sub-schools of Vedanta?
Answer: The three main sub-schools of Vedanta are — (i) Advaita of Shankara, which holds that Brahman alone is real, the world is illusion (maya), and Atman is identical with Brahman; (ii) Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja, which holds that Brahman is qualified by the world and the souls — they are real but inseparable from Brahman; (iii) Dvaita of Madhva, which holds that Brahman, the world and the souls are eternally distinct and equally real.
11. What is Charvaka philosophy?
Answer: Charvaka, also called Lokayata, is the materialistic and atheistic school of Indian Philosophy. It rejects the Vedas, God, soul, karma, rebirth and moksha. Only the body, made up of the four elements (earth, water, fire and air), is real. Consciousness is an emergent property of matter, like the intoxicating quality of fermented liquor. The only valid means of knowledge is perception. The highest end of life is pleasure (kama).
12. State the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.
Answer: The Four Noble Truths (Arya-Satyas) preached by Buddha are — (i) life is full of suffering (dukkha); (ii) suffering has a cause, namely craving (tanha) born of ignorance; (iii) suffering can be ended by removing its cause; (iv) the way to end suffering is the Noble Eight-Fold Path.
13. What is the doctrine of pratityasamutpada?
Answer: Pratityasamutpada is the central Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination. It states that nothing in the universe is independent or self-existent. Every event arises depending on certain causes and conditions, and ceases when the causes cease. From this doctrine flow the two sub-doctrines of anitya (impermanence) and anatta (no-self).
14. What is Anekantavada?
Answer: Anekantavada is the Jaina doctrine of the many-sidedness of reality. It states that reality is extremely complex and possesses an infinite number of aspects. No single point of view can give a complete description of reality. Therefore, every statement about reality is only partially true. Anekantavada is the metaphysical foundation of Jaina logic.
15. What is Syadvada?
Answer: Syadvada is the Jaina doctrine of conditional predication. It says that every judgement is true only “in some respect” (syat = perhaps / in some respect). Therefore, in describing reality, the word “syat” must be added to every statement. Jaina logic gives seven such conditional forms (sapta-bhangi). Syadvada is the logical expression of Anekantavada.
16. What are the Three Jewels of Jainism?
Answer: The Three Jewels (Triratna) of Jainism are — (i) Samyak-darshana — right faith, (ii) Samyak-jnana — right knowledge, and (iii) Samyak-charitra — right conduct. Together these three are the path to liberation in Jaina philosophy.
17. Why is Charvaka philosophy called “Lokayata”?
Answer: Charvaka is called “Lokayata” because it is the philosophy of the common people (loka) — a worldly, this-worldly philosophy that denies the other world and accepts only what is given in ordinary experience.
18. What is the meaning of moksha?
Answer: Moksha means liberation — final freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth (samsara), and from all the suffering that comes from ignorance, craving and karma. It is also called mukti, kaivalya or nirvana in different schools. It is the highest end of human life recognised by almost every Indian philosophical school.
19. Why is Indian Philosophy called “spiritual”?
Answer: Indian Philosophy is called spiritual because (i) its highest concern is not material prosperity but the realisation of the eternal Self; (ii) it grew out of the Vedic and Upanishadic spiritual literature; (iii) it always insists on the unity of theory and practice — knowledge must transform life; and (iv) its highest goal is moksha, the spiritual liberation of the soul.
20. What are the two main sub-schools of Buddhism?
Answer: After Buddha’s death, Buddhism gradually split into two main sub-schools — (i) Theravada (or Hinayana), the older school that emphasises personal liberation through monastic discipline; and (ii) Mahayana, the later school that emphasises the ideal of the Bodhisattva who works for the liberation of all beings.
F. Long Answer Questions (5-8 marks)
1. Discuss the general characteristics of Indian Philosophy.
Answer: Indian Philosophy is the result of thousands of years of spiritual reflection by the seers of India. Although the different schools differ in many metaphysical details, they share certain general characteristics that distinguish Indian Philosophy from Western Philosophy.
(i) Spiritual orientation — Indian Philosophy is essentially spiritual. Its highest concern is the realisation of the eternal Self and not material gain. Even the materialistic Charvaka took its position as a reaction against the spiritual mainstream.
(ii) Unity of theory and practice — Indian Philosophy is never purely theoretical. It always insists that philosophical knowledge must transform the life of the knower. Knowledge that does not lead to right conduct is regarded as useless.
(iii) Authority of the Vedas — The orthodox schools accept the Vedas as the supreme authority for super-sensible truths. Even the heterodox schools were forced to define themselves in opposition to the Vedas, showing the central position of the Vedas in Indian thought.
(iv) Law of karma — Almost every school accepts that every action produces an appropriate result. Good actions produce happiness, bad actions produce suffering, and disinterested actions produce no bondage. The law of karma is a universal moral law.
(v) Doctrine of samsara — Because the consequences of all actions cannot be enjoyed in one life, the soul must be reborn. The cycle of birth, death and rebirth is samsara.
(vi) Eternal moral order — The universe is not a blind mechanism. It is governed by an eternal moral order (rita / dharma).
(vii) Eternal soul — Except Charvaka and Buddhism, every Indian school accepts an eternal, unchanging Self (Atman / Jiva).
(viii) Self-control and discipline — Spiritual discipline, control of the senses, and redirection of the lower energies towards a higher goal are accepted as necessary for liberation.
(ix) Common goal of moksha — Every Indian school except Charvaka accepts moksha as the highest end of human life.
(x) Ignorance as the root of bondage — Almost every school holds that ignorance is the cause of bondage and right knowledge is the cause of liberation.
These ten characteristics together give Indian Philosophy its distinctive character — a deeply spiritual, practical, moral and liberation-oriented philosophy.
2. Distinguish between Astika and Nastika schools and name the schools belonging to each group.
Answer: The traditional classification of Indian Philosophy is based on the attitude of each school towards the Vedas. The schools that accept the authority of the Vedas are called Astika (orthodox), and the schools that reject the authority of the Vedas are called Nastika (heterodox).
There are six Astika schools, also called the Shad-Darshana — (i) Nyaya, founded by sage Gautama; (ii) Vaisheshika, founded by sage Kanada; (iii) Samkhya, founded by sage Kapila; (iv) Yoga, systematized by Patanjali; (v) Mimamsa, founded by sage Jaimini; and (vi) Vedanta, based on the Brahma-sutra of Badarayana.
There are three Nastika schools — (i) Charvaka (or Lokayata), the materialistic school; (ii) Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha; and (iii) Jainism, given final form by Mahavira.
It must be noted that the words “Astika” and “Nastika” in Indian Philosophy do not mean “theist” and “atheist” in the ordinary English sense. Samkhya, for example, is technically Astika even though it does not require God. Jainism, on the other hand, is deeply religious but technically Nastika because it rejects the Vedas. The classification is purely about attitude towards the Vedas.
The Astika and Nastika schools also differ in many other ways. The Astika schools tend to accept an eternal soul, eternal moral order and the authority of scripture. The Nastika schools differ on these points — Charvaka rejects all of them, Buddhism rejects the eternal soul but accepts moral order, and Jainism accepts everything except the Vedas.
3. Write a note on the six Astika schools of Indian Philosophy.
Answer: The six Astika or orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy are sometimes grouped into three pairs of allied schools — Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta.
(i) Nyaya — Founded by sage Gautama. Mainly a school of logic and epistemology. It accepts four pramanas — perception, inference, comparison and verbal testimony — and uses a five-membered syllogism. Its sixteen categories cover everything from the means of knowledge to the goal of liberation.
(ii) Vaisheshika — Founded by sage Kanada. A school of atomism and metaphysics. The world is made up of eternal atoms of earth, water, fire and air. It admits seven categories — substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, inherence and non-existence.
(iii) Samkhya — Founded by sage Kapila. A dualistic philosophy. Reality consists of two eternal principles — Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (consciousness). Prakriti has three gunas — sattva, rajas and tamas. The world evolves out of Prakriti in twenty-five tattvas. Liberation is the knowledge that Purusha is not Prakriti.
(iv) Yoga — Systematized by Patanjali in the Yoga-sutra. It accepts the metaphysics of Samkhya and adds the practical discipline of liberation. Yoga is the cessation of mental modifications (chitta-vrtti-nirodha). Its eight limbs are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi.
(v) Mimamsa — Founded by sage Jaimini. The school of Vedic ritualism. Its central concept is dharma — duty as prescribed by the Vedas. The Vedas are eternal and self-valid. Heaven and liberation are attained through the proper performance of Vedic duties.
(vi) Vedanta — Based on the Brahma-sutra of Badarayana. The philosophy of the Upanishads. It is concerned with the knowledge of Brahman (the Absolute). It has three main sub-schools — Advaita of Shankara (Brahman alone is real), Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja (Brahman qualified by world and souls), and Dvaita of Madhva (Brahman, world and souls are distinct).
Together these six schools form the philosophical framework of orthodox Hindu thought.
4. Discuss the Charvaka philosophy.
Answer: The Charvaka school, also known as Lokayata, is the materialistic and atheistic school of Indian Philosophy. It is named after its supposed founder Charvaka, and is also associated with the sage Brihaspati. It is one of the three Nastika (heterodox) schools that reject the authority of the Vedas.
Epistemology — Charvaka admits only one means of valid knowledge — perception (pratyaksha). It rejects inference (anumana) on the ground that it depends on a universal connection (vyapti) which itself can never be established by perception. It rejects verbal testimony (shabda), because the Vedas are written by men and contain mutual contradictions. Therefore, only what is directly perceived is real.
Metaphysics — Since perception is the only means of knowledge, Charvaka accepts only what can be perceived. The world is made up of four perceptible material elements — earth, water, fire and air. Akasha (ether) is rejected because it cannot be perceived. There is no God, no soul, no eternal moral order. The body, formed by the combination of the four elements, is the only reality. Consciousness is an emergent quality of matter — just as the intoxicating power arises from the combination of certain ingredients in fermented liquor, consciousness arises from the combination of the four elements in the body, and ceases when the body decomposes.
Ethics — Since there is no soul, no rebirth and no moksha, the highest end of life is pleasure (kama) here in this world. The Charvaka motto is — “Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die.” Pain cannot be avoided, but a wise person should try to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in this life.
Importance — Although Charvaka philosophy is rejected by all the other schools, it played an important role in Indian thought. It compelled the other schools to defend their views by reason and evidence. It is the empirical and naturalistic counter-current to the spiritualism of the orthodox tradition.
5. Discuss the philosophy of Buddhism.
Answer: Buddhism is the philosophical and religious system founded by Gautama Buddha (c. 563-483 BCE) — the prince of the Shakya clan who renounced the world to find an end to suffering. After enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya, he preached his teachings for forty-five years.
The Four Noble Truths (Arya-Satyas) — These are the foundation of Buddhist philosophy.
(i) Life is suffering (dukkha) — Birth, old age, disease, death, separation from the loved, contact with the unloved, unfulfilled desire — all are suffering.
(ii) Suffering has a cause (samudaya) — The cause of suffering is craving (tanha / trishna), which is itself born of ignorance.
(iii) Suffering can be ended (nirodha) — When craving is removed, suffering ceases. This cessation is nirvana.
(iv) The way to end suffering (marga) — The way is the Noble Eight-Fold Path.
The Noble Eight-Fold Path — This is the practical discipline that leads to nirvana. Its eight steps are — right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. They cover the three areas of wisdom (prajna), morality (sila) and meditation (samadhi).
Three Fundamental Doctrines —
(a) Anitya — Everything in the world is momentary and impermanent. Nothing has a fixed nature.
(b) Anatta — There is no permanent self or soul. The “self” is only a stream of momentary mental and physical events.
(c) Pratityasamutpada — The doctrine of dependent origination. Every event arises depending on causes and conditions, and ceases when its causes cease.
Sub-schools — After Buddha, Buddhism gradually divided into two main traditions — Theravada (also called Hinayana), the older and more conservative school of “the elders”, and Mahayana, the later and more liberal school which developed the Bodhisattva ideal. The Mahayana further produced the Madhyamika school of Nagarjuna and the Yogacara school of Asanga and Vasubandhu.
Importance — Buddhism has been one of the most influential systems of thought in the world. It spread from India to almost every part of Asia. Its emphasis on suffering, on the moral and meditative discipline, and on universal compassion has shaped the spiritual life of millions.
6. Discuss the philosophy of Jainism.
Answer: Jainism is one of the oldest religious-philosophical systems of India. According to its tradition, the teachings of Jainism were given by twenty-four Tirthankaras (ford-makers). The first was Rishabhadeva and the twenty-fourth and last — and the historical founder of Jainism in its present form — was Mahavira (c. 599-527 BCE), a contemporary of Buddha. Jainism is one of the three Nastika schools because it rejects the authority of the Vedas.
Metaphysics — Jainism accepts two ultimate kinds of substances — jiva (soul) and ajiva (non-soul). The number of souls is infinite, and every soul is eternal, conscious and capable of attaining liberation. Ajiva includes matter (pudgala), space, motion (dharma), rest (adharma) and time. The soul is bound by karma-matter that sticks to it because of passions; this is the cause of bondage and rebirth.
Epistemology — Anekantavada and Syadvada — Two famous doctrines distinguish Jaina logic.
(a) Anekantavada — The doctrine that reality has many aspects (an-eka-anta = “not one-sided”). No single point of view can give a complete description of reality. Every judgement is only partially true.
(b) Syadvada — The logical expression of Anekantavada. Every statement must be qualified by the word “syat” — “in some respect / from one point of view”. Jaina logic gives seven such conditional forms (sapta-bhangi), e.g. “in some respect the pot exists”, “in some respect the pot does not exist”, and so on.
Ethics — The Three Jewels and Ahimsa — The path of liberation in Jainism is the Three Jewels (Triratna) — right faith (samyak-darshana), right knowledge (samyak-jnana) and right conduct (samyak-charitra). Right conduct includes the five great vows — non-injury (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacharya) and non-possession (aparigraha). The supreme moral principle is Ahimsa — non-injury to any living being. Jaina ethics is rigorous and uncompromising.
Liberation — Liberation (moksha or kaivalya) is the complete freedom of the soul from karma-matter. The liberated soul rises to the top of the universe and dwells there in eternal bliss, omniscience and perfection.
7. Discuss the three sub-schools of Vedanta.
Answer: Vedanta means “the end of the Vedas” — that is, the philosophy of the Upanishads, which form the concluding portion of the Vedas. Vedanta is based on three foundational texts (Prasthanatrayi) — the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita and the Brahma-sutra of Badarayana. The major sub-schools of Vedanta have arisen out of different interpretations of these texts.
(i) Advaita (Non-dualism) of Shankara — Founded by Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE). According to Advaita, Brahman alone is real. Brahman is one, without a second, without qualities (nirguna), formless and infinite. The world of names and forms is unreal — it is maya, a cosmic illusion produced by ignorance (avidya). The individual soul (Atman) is, in its true nature, identical with Brahman — “Tat tvam asi” (That thou art). Liberation is the direct realisation of this identity, attained through right knowledge (jnana).
(ii) Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) of Ramanuja — Founded by Ramanuja (11th-12th century CE). According to Vishishtadvaita, Brahman is one, but qualified by the world and the souls — they are real and inseparable from Brahman, like the body is inseparable from the soul. Brahman is a personal God (saguna) — Lord Vishnu. The world is real and not illusory. Liberation is the realisation of one’s eternal relation to God, attained through devotion (bhakti) and the grace of God.
(iii) Dvaita (Dualism) of Madhva — Founded by Madhvacharya (13th century CE). According to Dvaita, Brahman, the world and the souls are eternally distinct and equally real. Brahman is the personal God Vishnu. The souls are eternally dependent on God, but never identical with Him. The world is a real creation of God. Liberation is attained through devotion to God and the grace of God; it is the soul’s eternal nearness to God, but not identity with Him.
These three sub-schools represent three different interpretations of the same scriptural texts and three different relationships between the Absolute, the world and the individual soul.
8. What is the Samkhya theory of evolution?
Answer: The Samkhya theory of evolution describes the development of the world out of Prakriti. According to Samkhya, reality consists of two eternal principles — Prakriti (primordial matter, unconscious) and Purusha (pure consciousness, inactive). Prakriti is composed of three gunas — sattva (purity, light), rajas (activity, passion) and tamas (inertia, darkness). In its natural state, the three gunas are in perfect equilibrium, and there is no manifest world. When the equilibrium is disturbed by the proximity of Purusha, evolution begins.
The order of evolution is — from Prakriti arises Mahat (the great one, intellect or buddhi); from Mahat arises Ahamkara (ego); from Ahamkara arise the eleven sense organs (five senses of knowledge, five organs of action and the mind/manas) and the five subtle elements (tanmatras); from the five tanmatras arise the five gross elements (earth, water, fire, air and akasha). Together with Prakriti and Purusha, these are the twenty-five tattvas of Samkhya.
Liberation in Samkhya is the discriminative knowledge that Purusha is entirely different from Prakriti. When this knowledge dawns, Prakriti withdraws her evolution from that Purusha, and the Purusha rests in its own pure consciousness — this is kaivalya, isolation.
9. What is Ashtanga Yoga? Explain its eight limbs.
Answer: Ashtanga Yoga, the eight-fold path of Yoga, was systematized by Patanjali in the Yoga-sutra. Yoga is defined as “the cessation of the modifications of the mind” (chitta-vrtti-nirodha). The eight limbs are the practical discipline that leads to this state.
(i) Yama — Moral restraints. Five great vows — non-injury (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacharya) and non-possession (aparigraha).
(ii) Niyama — Personal observances. Five — purity (shaucha), contentment (santosha), austerity (tapas), self-study (svadhyaya) and devotion to God (Ishvara-pranidhana).
(iii) Asana — Bodily posture. A steady and comfortable posture is necessary for meditation.
(iv) Pranayama — Control of breath. The regulation of the breath calms the mind.
(v) Pratyahara — Withdrawal of the senses from external objects.
(vi) Dharana — Concentration. Holding the mind steady on one object.
(vii) Dhyana — Meditation. The continuous flow of thought towards the object of concentration.
(viii) Samadhi — Super-conscious absorption. The mind merges into the object of meditation, and the duality of subject and object disappears.
The first five limbs are external aids (bahiranga) and the last three are internal aids (antaranga). Together they lead from moral preparation to the final super-conscious state in which the soul realises its essential separation from Prakriti.
10. What is the common goal of all Indian philosophical schools?
Answer: In spite of all their differences, the Indian philosophical schools share a common goal — the liberation (moksha) of the soul from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth (samsara). The only exception is Charvaka, which accepts pleasure (kama) as the highest end of life.
The other schools differ in their conception of liberation, but they all agree that liberation is the highest end of human life. For Nyaya and Vaisheshika, liberation is the absolute cessation of all suffering. For Samkhya and Yoga, it is the kaivalya — the isolation of the Purusha from Prakriti. For Mimamsa, it is the attainment of heaven and ultimately liberation through the proper performance of Vedic duties. For Advaita Vedanta, it is the realisation of the identity of Atman and Brahman. For Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita, it is the eternal nearness to God. For Buddhism, it is nirvana — the extinction of craving and suffering. For Jainism, it is kaivalya — the freedom of the soul from karma-matter.
The path to liberation also varies — knowledge in Vedanta and Samkhya, devotion in Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita, ritual in Mimamsa, meditation in Yoga and Buddhism, ahimsa and the Three Jewels in Jainism. But the common conviction is that the cause of bondage is ignorance and the cause of liberation is right knowledge combined with moral discipline. This unity of spiritual goal in the midst of philosophical diversity is the most distinctive feature of Indian Philosophy.
Additional Questions for Practice
1. What does the word “darshana” mean? How is Indian Philosophy different from Western Philosophy?
Answer: The Sanskrit word “darshana”, which is the equivalent of the English word “philosophy”, literally means “vision” or “direct seeing”. Indian Philosophy is therefore not a mere intellectual exercise but a vision of truth gained through reason and inner spiritual experience. It is essentially spiritual, practical and liberation-oriented. Western Philosophy, on the other hand, has been mainly intellectual, speculative and theoretical, often separating philosophy from religion and from the practical life. Western Philosophy aims at clarity of thought; Indian Philosophy aims at the transformation of life.
2. Why are Samkhya and Yoga grouped together?
Answer: Samkhya and Yoga are grouped together as allied schools because Yoga adopts the metaphysics of Samkhya — the dualism of Prakriti and Purusha, the three gunas, the twenty-five tattvas — and adds to it a practical discipline for the realisation of liberation. The two schools are like theory and practice — Samkhya gives the theoretical analysis, Yoga gives the practical method.
3. Why are Nyaya and Vaisheshika grouped together?
Answer: Nyaya and Vaisheshika are grouped together because they share a common metaphysics. Both accept the atomic theory of the world, the plurality of eternal souls, the existence of God, and the same conception of liberation. They differ mainly in their emphasis — Nyaya emphasises logic and epistemology, Vaisheshika emphasises metaphysics and the categories of reality. The two together form what is sometimes called the Nyaya-Vaisheshika system.
4. Why are Mimamsa and Vedanta grouped together?
Answer: Mimamsa and Vedanta are grouped together because both are direct interpretations of the Vedas. Purva-Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa) deals with the earlier portion of the Vedas — the karma-kanda, which prescribes rituals — and develops a philosophy of Vedic ritualism. Uttara-Mimamsa (or Vedanta) deals with the later portion of the Vedas — the jnana-kanda, the Upanishads — and develops a philosophy of the knowledge of Brahman.
5. State the difference between the Hinayana and Mahayana sub-schools of Buddhism.
Answer: Hinayana (Theravada) is the older school of Buddhism. It is conservative, follows the original teachings of Buddha closely, and emphasises personal liberation through monastic discipline. Its ideal is the Arhat — the perfectly liberated saint. Mahayana is the later school. It is more liberal, develops the philosophy further, and emphasises the ideal of the Bodhisattva — the enlightened being who postpones his own final liberation in order to work for the liberation of all beings. Mahayana also developed the doctrines of universal compassion (karuna) and the philosophy of emptiness (shunyata).
6. State the seven categories of Vaisheshika.
Answer: The seven categories (padarthas) of Vaisheshika are — (i) substance (dravya), (ii) quality (guna), (iii) action (karma), (iv) generality (samanya), (v) particularity (vishesha), (vi) inherence (samavaya), and (vii) non-existence (abhava). Everything that exists, or can be denied to exist, falls under one of these seven categories. The school is named “Vaisheshika” after the category of vishesha (particularity).
7. What are the four pramanas accepted by Nyaya?
Answer: The Nyaya school accepts four pramanas (valid means of knowledge) — (i) pratyaksha (perception), the direct cognition of an object through the senses; (ii) anumana (inference), knowledge of an unperceived object through the perception of a sign; (iii) upamana (comparison), knowledge of an unknown object through similarity to a known one; and (iv) shabda (verbal testimony), knowledge through the words of a reliable person, including the Vedas.
8. State the five-membered syllogism of Nyaya.
Answer: The Nyaya five-membered syllogism is the standard form of inference. The five members are — (i) Pratijna — the proposition (e.g. “the hill has fire”); (ii) Hetu — the reason (“because it has smoke”); (iii) Udaharana — the example (“wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in the kitchen”); (iv) Upanaya — the application (“this hill has smoke that is invariably accompanied by fire”); (v) Nigamana — the conclusion (“therefore the hill has fire”).
9. What is the Samkhya doctrine of Satkaryavada?
Answer: Satkaryavada is the Samkhya theory of causality. It holds that the effect (karya) is already existent (sat) in its cause before its production. Production is not the bringing into existence of a new thing, but the manifestation of what was already latent in the cause. For example, oil is already present in the seed before it is extracted. This theory supports the Samkhya view that the world (effect) is already latent in Prakriti (cause), and evolution is the manifestation of this latent world.
10. Briefly state the difference between Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.
Answer: Advaita (Shankara) holds that Brahman alone is real, the world is illusion, and Atman is identical with Brahman. Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja) holds that Brahman is qualified by the world and the souls, which are real but inseparable from Brahman. Dvaita (Madhva) holds that Brahman, the world and the souls are three eternally distinct and equally real entities. The three schools represent a progressive movement from absolute non-dualism to qualified non-dualism to outright dualism.
11. State the five great vows of Jainism.
Answer: The five great vows (Pancha-Mahavrata) of Jainism are — (i) Ahimsa — non-injury to all living beings; (ii) Satya — truthfulness; (iii) Asteya — non-stealing; (iv) Brahmacharya — celibacy; (v) Aparigraha — non-possession. These vows are observed strictly by the Jaina monks and partially by the Jaina laity.
12. Why is Charvaka philosophy important even though it is rejected by all other schools?
Answer: Charvaka philosophy is important for several reasons. First, it is the empirical and naturalistic counter-current to the spiritualism of the orthodox tradition, and so it provides a balance. Second, it compelled the other schools to defend their views by reason and evidence, and so it sharpened Indian philosophical debate. Third, it shows that Indian Philosophy is not monolithic; it has room for materialism as well as for spirituality. Fourth, its critique of inference and verbal testimony forced other schools to develop more rigorous epistemologies.
13. State the three doctrines of Buddhism — anitya, anatta and pratityasamutpada.
Answer: (i) Anitya — Everything in the world is momentary and impermanent. Nothing has a fixed nature; every event arises and ceases in a moment. (ii) Anatta — There is no permanent self or soul. What we call “self” is only a stream of momentary mental and physical events, just as a river is only a stream of water-drops. (iii) Pratityasamutpada — Dependent origination. Every event arises depending on causes and conditions, and ceases when its causes cease. From this central doctrine flow the doctrines of anitya and anatta.
14. State the three sub-schools of Vedanta in tabular form.
Answer: Given below in the table section.
15. Discuss the relevance of Indian Philosophy in modern life.
Answer: Indian Philosophy is highly relevant in modern life. Its insistence on the unity of theory and practice teaches us that knowledge is meaningless if it does not transform life. Its emphasis on self-control, moral discipline and meditation is the answer to the stress, anxiety and craving of modern consumer society. The Yoga discipline of Patanjali has become a global health practice. The Buddhist Eight-Fold Path and mindfulness meditation are widely practised around the world for their mental health benefits. The Jaina principle of ahimsa influenced Mahatma Gandhi and through him the modern world’s idea of non-violent resistance. The Vedantic vision of the unity of all beings is the philosophical foundation of universal brotherhood and ecological awareness. Charvaka’s empiricism reminds us that philosophy must respect evidence. In all these ways Indian Philosophy continues to shape the spiritual and moral life of humanity.
Glossary of Important Terms
| Sanskrit / Pali Term | English Meaning |
|---|---|
| Darshana | Philosophy; literally “vision” or “direct seeing” |
| Astika | Orthodox; one who accepts the Vedas |
| Nastika | Heterodox; one who rejects the Vedas |
| Veda | The oldest religious literature of India |
| Upanishad | The philosophical portion of the Vedas |
| Brahman | The Absolute Reality of the Upanishads |
| Atman | The eternal Self / soul |
| Jiva | Individual living soul |
| Karma | Action and its moral consequences |
| Samsara | The cycle of birth, death and rebirth |
| Moksha / Mukti | Liberation from samsara |
| Nirvana | Buddhist term for liberation |
| Kaivalya | Samkhya / Jaina term for liberation; isolation |
| Avidya | Ignorance — the cause of bondage |
| Jnana | Knowledge — the cause of liberation |
| Pramana | Means of valid knowledge |
| Pratyaksha | Perception |
| Anumana | Inference |
| Upamana | Comparison |
| Shabda | Verbal testimony |
| Paramanu | Atom (in Vaisheshika) |
| Padartha | Category of reality (in Vaisheshika) |
| Prakriti | Primordial matter (in Samkhya) |
| Purusha | Pure consciousness (in Samkhya) |
| Guna | Quality — sattva, rajas, tamas |
| Tattva | Principle of reality |
| Satkaryavada | Theory that the effect pre-exists in the cause |
| Chitta-vrtti-nirodha | Cessation of the modifications of the mind (Yoga) |
| Ashtanga Yoga | The eight-fold path of Yoga |
| Samadhi | Super-conscious absorption |
| Dharma | Duty / moral law |
| Maya | Cosmic illusion (Advaita) |
| Saguna Brahman | Brahman with qualities — personal God |
| Nirguna Brahman | Brahman without qualities — impersonal Absolute |
| Bhakti | Devotion |
| Lokayata | Another name for Charvaka philosophy |
| Dukkha | Suffering (Buddhism) |
| Tanha | Craving (Buddhism) |
| Anitya | Impermanence (Buddhism) |
| Anatta | No-self (Buddhism) |
| Pratityasamutpada | Dependent origination (Buddhism) |
| Theravada / Hinayana | Older school of Buddhism |
| Mahayana | Later, liberal school of Buddhism |
| Tirthankara | Ford-maker; Jaina enlightened teacher |
| Anekantavada | Doctrine that reality has many aspects |
| Syadvada | Doctrine of conditional predication |
| Triratna | Three Jewels — right faith, knowledge, conduct |
| Ahimsa | Non-injury |
Astika and Nastika Schools — Comparison Table
| Point of Difference | Astika (Orthodox) | Nastika (Heterodox) |
|---|---|---|
| Authority of the Vedas | Accepted | Rejected |
| Number of schools | Six — Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta | Three — Charvaka, Buddhism, Jainism |
| Eternal soul | Generally accepted | Charvaka and Buddhism reject it; Jainism accepts it |
| Existence of God | Mostly accepted (Mimamsa and classical Samkhya are exceptions) | Charvaka and Buddhism reject; Jainism does not require God |
| Law of karma | Accepted | Charvaka rejects; Buddhism and Jainism accept |
| Rebirth | Accepted | Charvaka rejects; Buddhism and Jainism accept |
| Goal of life | Moksha (liberation) | Charvaka — pleasure; Buddhism — nirvana; Jainism — kaivalya |
| Means of valid knowledge | Several pramanas accepted (1 to 6 depending on school) | Charvaka — only 1 (perception); Buddhism — 2; Jainism — 3 |
The Six Astika Schools — Comparison Table
| School | Founder | Main Subject | Key Concepts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nyaya | Gautama (Akshapada) | Logic and epistemology | Four pramanas; five-membered syllogism; sixteen categories |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada | Atomism and metaphysics | Eternal atoms; seven categories (padarthas) |
| Samkhya | Kapila | Dualistic metaphysics | Prakriti and Purusha; three gunas; twenty-five tattvas; Satkaryavada |
| Yoga | Patanjali | Practical discipline of liberation | Chitta-vrtti-nirodha; Ashtanga Yoga (eight limbs) |
| Mimamsa | Jaimini | Vedic ritualism | Dharma; eternal Vedas; karma-kanda |
| Vedanta | Badarayana | Knowledge of Brahman | Brahman, Atman, maya; three sub-schools |
The Three Sub-schools of Vedanta — Comparison Table
| Point | Advaita | Vishishtadvaita | Dvaita |
|---|---|---|---|
| Founder | Shankara | Ramanuja | Madhva |
| Nature of Brahman | Nirguna (without qualities) | Saguna, qualified by world and souls | Saguna, personal God Vishnu |
| Relation of Atman to Brahman | Identical | Real but inseparable from Brahman | Eternally distinct |
| Nature of the world | Unreal — maya | Real and inseparable from Brahman | Real and distinct from Brahman |
| Path to liberation | Knowledge (jnana) | Devotion (bhakti) and grace | Devotion (bhakti) and grace |
| Nature of liberation | Realisation of identity with Brahman | Eternal nearness to God | Eternal nearness to God, but never identity |
The Three Nastika Schools — Comparison Table
| Point | Charvaka | Buddhism | Jainism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Founder | Charvaka / Brihaspati | Gautama Buddha | Mahavira (24th Tirthankara) |
| Authority of the Vedas | Rejected | Rejected | Rejected |
| Existence of God | Rejected | Rejected (no creator-God) | Not required |
| Existence of soul | Rejected | Rejected (anatta) | Accepted (infinite eternal souls) |
| Law of karma | Rejected | Accepted | Accepted (karma-matter) |
| Rebirth | Rejected | Accepted | Accepted |
| Goal of life | Pleasure (kama) | Nirvana | Kaivalya (liberation of soul) |
| Pramanas | Only 1 — perception | 2 — perception, inference | 3 — perception, inference, testimony |
| Central doctrines | Materialism; pleasure as goal | Four Noble Truths; Eight-Fold Path; anitya; anatta; pratityasamutpada | Anekantavada; Syadvada; Three Jewels; Ahimsa |
The Eight Limbs of Ashtanga Yoga
| Limb | Sanskrit Name | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Yama | Moral restraints — ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya, aparigraha |
| 2 | Niyama | Personal observances — purity, contentment, austerity, self-study, devotion to God |
| 3 | Asana | Steady and comfortable posture |
| 4 | Pranayama | Control and regulation of breath |
| 5 | Pratyahara | Withdrawal of the senses from objects |
| 6 | Dharana | Concentration on one object |
| 7 | Dhyana | Continuous meditation |
| 8 | Samadhi | Super-conscious absorption |
The Noble Eight-Fold Path of Buddhism
| Step | Name | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Right View (Samyak-drishti) | Correct understanding of the Four Noble Truths |
| 2 | Right Resolve (Samyak-sankalpa) | Right intention — renunciation, goodwill, harmlessness |
| 3 | Right Speech (Samyak-vak) | Truthful, kind, useful speech |
| 4 | Right Action (Samyak-karmanta) | Moral conduct — not killing, stealing, etc. |
| 5 | Right Livelihood (Samyak-ajiva) | Earning living without harming others |
| 6 | Right Effort (Samyak-vyayama) | Effort to overcome bad and develop good |
| 7 | Right Mindfulness (Samyak-smriti) | Constant awareness of body, feelings, mind |
| 8 | Right Concentration (Samyak-samadhi) | Mental concentration leading to nirvana |
Key Founders of Indian Philosophical Schools
| School | Founder / Main Text |
|---|---|
| Nyaya | Gautama (Akshapada) — Nyaya-sutra |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada — Vaisheshika-sutra |
| Samkhya | Kapila — Samkhya-sutra; Samkhya-karika of Ishvara Krishna |
| Yoga | Patanjali — Yoga-sutra |
| Mimamsa | Jaimini — Mimamsa-sutra |
| Vedanta | Badarayana — Brahma-sutra |
| Advaita Vedanta | Adi Shankaracharya |
| Vishishtadvaita | Ramanujacharya |
| Dvaita | Madhvacharya |
| Charvaka | Charvaka / Brihaspati |
| Buddhism | Gautama Buddha |
| Jainism | Mahavira (24th Tirthankara) |
Conclusion
Indian Philosophy is one of humanity’s greatest achievements. Beginning with the Vedic seers and continuing through the Upanishads, the Buddha, Mahavira and the great medieval acharyas, it has produced an extraordinary diversity of philosophical positions — materialism and idealism, monism and dualism, theism and atheism, ritualism and meditation, logic and devotion. Yet beneath this diversity there runs a deep unity — the unity of the spiritual quest. Almost every Indian school accepts that life involves suffering, that suffering arises from ignorance, and that liberation comes from right knowledge combined with moral discipline. This unity in diversity is the most distinctive feature of Indian Philosophy and the reason why it continues to inspire thinkers all over the world.
For the ASSEB Class 11 Logic and Philosophy examination, students should be able to (a) explain the general characteristics of Indian Philosophy, (b) distinguish between Astika and Nastika schools, (c) identify the founders and main doctrines of each school, (d) write detailed answers on Charvaka, Buddhism, Jainism and the three sub-schools of Vedanta, and (e) compare any two schools using a comparison table. The MCQs, fill-in-the-blanks, true/false, very short, short and long answer questions given in this article cover all these areas thoroughly.
Keep revising the comparison tables and the glossary. Best of luck for your examination from HSLC Guru.